Python Documentation contents
*****************************

* What’s New in Python

  * What’s New in Python 2.7

    * The Future for Python 2.x

    * Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings

    * Python 3.1 Features

    * PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections

    * PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

    * PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines

    * PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

    * PEP 3106: Dictionary Views

    * PEP 3137: The memoryview Object

    * Other Language Changes

      * Interpreter Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New and Improved Modules

      * New module: importlib

      * New module: sysconfig

      * ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk

      * Updated module: unittest

      * Updated module: ElementTree 1.3

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Capsules

      * Port-Specific Changes: Windows

      * Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

      * Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Porting to Python 2.7

    * New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

      * Two new environment variables for debug mode

      * PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches

      * PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7

      * PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

        * Bootstrapping pip By Default

        * Documentation Changes

      * PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for
        stdlib http clients

      * PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7

      * New "make regen-all" build target

      * Removal of "make touch" build target

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.6

    * Python 3.0

    * Changes to the Development Process

      * New Issue Tracker: Roundup

      * New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx

    * PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

      * Writing Context Managers

      * The contextlib module

    * PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module

    * PEP 370: Per-user "site-packages" Directory

    * PEP 371: The "multiprocessing" Package

    * PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting

    * PEP 3105: "print" As a Function

    * PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes

    * PEP 3112: Byte Literals

    * PEP 3116: New I/O Library

    * PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol

    * PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes

    * PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax

    * PEP 3129: Class Decorators

    * PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

      * The "fractions" Module

    * Other Language Changes

      * Optimizations

      * Interpreter Changes

    * New and Improved Modules

      * The "ast" module

      * The "future_builtins" module

      * The "json" module: JavaScript Object Notation

      * The "plistlib" module: A Property-List Parser

      * ctypes Enhancements

      * Improved SSL Support

    * Deprecations and Removals

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes: Windows

      * Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

      * Port-Specific Changes: IRIX

    * Porting to Python 2.6

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.5

    * PEP 308: Conditional Expressions

    * PEP 309: Partial Function Application

    * PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

    * PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports

    * PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts

    * PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally

    * PEP 342: New Generator Features

    * PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

      * Writing Context Managers

      * The contextlib module

    * PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes

    * PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type

    * PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method

    * Other Language Changes

      * Interactive Interpreter Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New, Improved, and Removed Modules

      * The ctypes package

      * The ElementTree package

      * The hashlib package

      * The sqlite3 package

      * The wsgiref package

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes

    * Porting to Python 2.5

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.4

    * PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects

    * PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

    * PEP 289: Generator Expressions

    * PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions

    * PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods

    * PEP 322: Reverse Iteration

    * PEP 324: New subprocess Module

    * PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

      * Why is Decimal needed?

      * The "Decimal" type

      * The "Context" type

    * PEP 328: Multi-line Imports

    * PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

    * Other Language Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

      * cookielib

      * doctest

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes

    * Porting to Python 2.4

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.3

    * PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype

    * PEP 255: Simple Generators

    * PEP 263: Source Code Encodings

    * PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives

    * PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT

    * PEP 278: Universal Newline Support

    * PEP 279: enumerate()

    * PEP 282: The logging Package

    * PEP 285: A Boolean Type

    * PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks

    * PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

    * PEP 302: New Import Hooks

    * PEP 305: Comma-separated Files

    * PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements

    * Extended Slices

    * Other Language Changes

      * String Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

      * Date/Time Type

      * The optparse Module

    * Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Porting to Python 2.3

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.2

    * Introduction

    * PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes

      * Old and New Classes

      * Descriptors

      * Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule

      * Attribute Access

      * Related Links

    * PEP 234: Iterators

    * PEP 255: Simple Generators

    * PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

    * PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator

    * Unicode Changes

    * PEP 227: Nested Scopes

    * New and Improved Modules

    * Interpreter Changes and Fixes

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.1

    * Introduction

    * PEP 227: Nested Scopes

    * PEP 236: __future__ Directives

    * PEP 207: Rich Comparisons

    * PEP 230: Warning Framework

    * PEP 229: New Build System

    * PEP 205: Weak References

    * PEP 232: Function Attributes

    * PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms

    * PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook

    * PEP 208: New Coercion Model

    * PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages

    * New and Improved Modules

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.0

    * Introduction

    * What About Python 1.6?

    * New Development Process

    * Unicode

    * List Comprehensions

    * Augmented Assignment

    * String Methods

    * Garbage Collection of Cycles

    * Other Core Changes

      * Minor Language Changes

      * Changes to Built-in Functions

    * Porting to 2.0

    * Extending/Embedding Changes

    * Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install

    * XML Modules

      * SAX2 Support

      * DOM Support

      * Relationship to PyXML

    * Module changes

    * New modules

    * IDLE Improvements

    * Deleted and Deprecated Modules

    * Acknowledgements

* The Python Tutorial

  * 1. Whetting Your Appetite

  * 2. Using the Python Interpreter

    * 2.1. Invoking the Interpreter

      * 2.1.1. Argument Passing

      * 2.1.2. Interactive Mode

    * 2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment

      * 2.2.1. Source Code Encoding

  * 3. An Informal Introduction to Python

    * 3.1. Using Python as a Calculator

      * 3.1.1. Numbers

      * 3.1.2. Strings

      * 3.1.3. Unicode Strings

      * 3.1.4. Lists

    * 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming

  * 4. More Control Flow Tools

    * 4.1. "if" Statements

    * 4.2. "for" Statements

    * 4.3. The "range()" Function

    * 4.4. "break" and "continue" Statements, and "else" Clauses on
      Loops

    * 4.5. "pass" Statements

    * 4.6. Defining Functions

    * 4.7. More on Defining Functions

      * 4.7.1. Default Argument Values

      * 4.7.2. Keyword Arguments

      * 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists

      * 4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists

      * 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions

      * 4.7.6. Documentation Strings

    * 4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style

  * 5. Data Structures

    * 5.1. More on Lists

      * 5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks

      * 5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues

      * 5.1.3. Functional Programming Tools

      * 5.1.4. List Comprehensions

        * 5.1.4.1. Nested List Comprehensions

    * 5.2. The "del" statement

    * 5.3. Tuples and Sequences

    * 5.4. Sets

    * 5.5. Dictionaries

    * 5.6. Looping Techniques

    * 5.7. More on Conditions

    * 5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types

  * 6. Modules

    * 6.1. More on Modules

      * 6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts

      * 6.1.2. The Module Search Path

      * 6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files

    * 6.2. Standard Modules

    * 6.3. The "dir()" Function

    * 6.4. Packages

      * 6.4.1. Importing * From a Package

      * 6.4.2. Intra-package References

      * 6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories

  * 7. Input and Output

    * 7.1. Fancier Output Formatting

      * 7.1.1. Old string formatting

    * 7.2. Reading and Writing Files

      * 7.2.1. Methods of File Objects

      * 7.2.2. Saving structured data with "json"

  * 8. Errors and Exceptions

    * 8.1. Syntax Errors

    * 8.2. Exceptions

    * 8.3. Handling Exceptions

    * 8.4. Raising Exceptions

    * 8.5. User-defined Exceptions

    * 8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions

    * 8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions

  * 9. Classes

    * 9.1. A Word About Names and Objects

    * 9.2. Python Scopes and Namespaces

    * 9.3. A First Look at Classes

      * 9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax

      * 9.3.2. Class Objects

      * 9.3.3. Instance Objects

      * 9.3.4. Method Objects

      * 9.3.5. Class and Instance Variables

    * 9.4. Random Remarks

    * 9.5. Inheritance

      * 9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance

    * 9.6. Private Variables and Class-local References

    * 9.7. Odds and Ends

    * 9.8. Exceptions Are Classes Too

    * 9.9. Iterators

    * 9.10. Generators

    * 9.11. Generator Expressions

  * 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library

    * 10.1. Operating System Interface

    * 10.2. File Wildcards

    * 10.3. Command Line Arguments

    * 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination

    * 10.5. String Pattern Matching

    * 10.6. Mathematics

    * 10.7. Internet Access

    * 10.8. Dates and Times

    * 10.9. Data Compression

    * 10.10. Performance Measurement

    * 10.11. Quality Control

    * 10.12. Batteries Included

  * 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II

    * 11.1. Output Formatting

    * 11.2. Templating

    * 11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts

    * 11.4. Multi-threading

    * 11.5. Logging

    * 11.6. Weak References

    * 11.7. Tools for Working with Lists

    * 11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic

  * 12. What Now?

  * 13. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution

    * 13.1. Line Editing

    * 13.2. History Substitution

    * 13.3. Key Bindings

    * 13.4. Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter

  * 14. Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations

    * 14.1. Representation Error

  * 15. Appendix

    * 15.1. Interactive Mode

      * 15.1.1. Error Handling

      * 15.1.2. Executable Python Scripts

      * 15.1.3. The Interactive Startup File

      * 15.1.4. The Customization Modules

* Python Setup and Usage

  * 1. Command line and environment

    * 1.1. Command line

      * 1.1.1. Interface options

      * 1.1.2. Generic options

      * 1.1.3. Miscellaneous options

      * 1.1.4. Options you shouldn’t use

    * 1.2. Environment variables

      * 1.2.1. Debug-mode variables

  * 2. Using Python on Unix platforms

    * 2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python

      * 2.1.1. On Linux

      * 2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD

      * 2.1.3. On OpenSolaris

    * 2.2. Building Python

    * 2.3. Python-related paths and files

    * 2.4. Miscellaneous

    * 2.5. Editors and IDEs

  * 3. Using Python on Windows

    * 3.1. Installing Python

    * 3.2. Alternative bundles

    * 3.3. Configuring Python

      * 3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables

      * 3.3.2. Finding the Python executable

      * 3.3.3. Finding modules

      * 3.3.4. Executing scripts

    * 3.4. Additional modules

      * 3.4.1. PyWin32

      * 3.4.2. Py2exe

      * 3.4.3. WConio

    * 3.5. Compiling Python on Windows

    * 3.6. Other resources

  * 4. Using Python on a Macintosh

    * 4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython

      * 4.1.1. How to run a Python script

      * 4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI

      * 4.1.3. Configuration

    * 4.2. The IDE

    * 4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages

    * 4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac

    * 4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac

    * 4.6. Other Resources

* The Python Language Reference

  * 1. Introduction

    * 1.1. Alternate Implementations

    * 1.2. Notation

  * 2. Lexical analysis

    * 2.1. Line structure

      * 2.1.1. Logical lines

      * 2.1.2. Physical lines

      * 2.1.3. Comments

      * 2.1.4. Encoding declarations

      * 2.1.5. Explicit line joining

      * 2.1.6. Implicit line joining

      * 2.1.7. Blank lines

      * 2.1.8. Indentation

      * 2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens

    * 2.2. Other tokens

    * 2.3. Identifiers and keywords

      * 2.3.1. Keywords

      * 2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers

    * 2.4. Literals

      * 2.4.1. String literals

      * 2.4.2. String literal concatenation

      * 2.4.3. Numeric literals

      * 2.4.4. Integer and long integer literals

      * 2.4.5. Floating point literals

      * 2.4.6. Imaginary literals

    * 2.5. Operators

    * 2.6. Delimiters

  * 3. Data model

    * 3.1. Objects, values and types

    * 3.2. The standard type hierarchy

    * 3.3. New-style and classic classes

    * 3.4. Special method names

      * 3.4.1. Basic customization

      * 3.4.2. Customizing attribute access

        * 3.4.2.1. More attribute access for new-style classes

        * 3.4.2.2. Implementing Descriptors

        * 3.4.2.3. Invoking Descriptors

        * 3.4.2.4. __slots__

      * 3.4.3. Customizing class creation

      * 3.4.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks

      * 3.4.5. Emulating callable objects

      * 3.4.6. Emulating container types

      * 3.4.7. Additional methods for emulation of sequence types

      * 3.4.8. Emulating numeric types

      * 3.4.9. Coercion rules

      * 3.4.10. With Statement Context Managers

      * 3.4.11. Special method lookup for old-style classes

      * 3.4.12. Special method lookup for new-style classes

  * 4. Execution model

    * 4.1. Naming and binding

      * 4.1.1. Interaction with dynamic features

    * 4.2. Exceptions

  * 5. Expressions

    * 5.1. Arithmetic conversions

    * 5.2. Atoms

      * 5.2.1. Identifiers (Names)

      * 5.2.2. Literals

      * 5.2.3. Parenthesized forms

      * 5.2.4. List displays

      * 5.2.5. Displays for sets and dictionaries

      * 5.2.6. Generator expressions

      * 5.2.7. Dictionary displays

      * 5.2.8. Set displays

      * 5.2.9. String conversions

      * 5.2.10. Yield expressions

        * 5.2.10.1. Generator-iterator methods

    * 5.3. Primaries

      * 5.3.1. Attribute references

      * 5.3.2. Subscriptions

      * 5.3.3. Slicings

      * 5.3.4. Calls

    * 5.4. The power operator

    * 5.5. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations

    * 5.6. Binary arithmetic operations

    * 5.7. Shifting operations

    * 5.8. Binary bitwise operations

    * 5.9. Comparisons

      * 5.9.1. Value comparisons

      * 5.9.2. Membership test operations

      * 5.9.3. Identity comparisons

    * 5.10. Boolean operations

    * 5.11. Conditional Expressions

    * 5.12. Lambdas

    * 5.13. Expression lists

    * 5.14. Evaluation order

    * 5.15. Operator precedence

  * 6. Simple statements

    * 6.1. Expression statements

    * 6.2. Assignment statements

      * 6.2.1. Augmented assignment statements

    * 6.3. The "assert" statement

    * 6.4. The "pass" statement

    * 6.5. The "del" statement

    * 6.6. The "print" statement

    * 6.7. The "return" statement

    * 6.8. The "yield" statement

    * 6.9. The "raise" statement

    * 6.10. The "break" statement

    * 6.11. The "continue" statement

    * 6.12. The "import" statement

      * 6.12.1. Future statements

    * 6.13. The "global" statement

    * 6.14. The "exec" statement

  * 7. Compound statements

    * 7.1. The "if" statement

    * 7.2. The "while" statement

    * 7.3. The "for" statement

    * 7.4. The "try" statement

    * 7.5. The "with" statement

    * 7.6. Function definitions

    * 7.7. Class definitions

  * 8. Top-level components

    * 8.1. Complete Python programs

    * 8.2. File input

    * 8.3. Interactive input

    * 8.4. Expression input

  * 9. Full Grammar specification

* The Python Standard Library

  * 1. Introduction

  * 2. Built-in Functions

  * 3. Non-essential Built-in Functions

  * 4. Built-in Constants

    * 4.1. Constants added by the "site" module

  * 5. Built-in Types

    * 5.1. Truth Value Testing

    * 5.2. Boolean Operations — "and", "or", "not"

    * 5.3. Comparisons

    * 5.4. Numeric Types — "int", "float", "long", "complex"

      * 5.4.1. Bitwise Operations on Integer Types

      * 5.4.2. Additional Methods on Integer Types

      * 5.4.3. Additional Methods on Float

    * 5.5. Iterator Types

      * 5.5.1. Generator Types

    * 5.6. Sequence Types — "str", "unicode", "list", "tuple",
      "bytearray", "buffer", "xrange"

      * 5.6.1. String Methods

      * 5.6.2. String Formatting Operations

      * 5.6.3. XRange Type

      * 5.6.4. Mutable Sequence Types

    * 5.7. Set Types — "set", "frozenset"

    * 5.8. Mapping Types — "dict"

      * 5.8.1. Dictionary view objects

    * 5.9. File Objects

    * 5.10. memoryview type

    * 5.11. Context Manager Types

    * 5.12. Other Built-in Types

      * 5.12.1. Modules

      * 5.12.2. Classes and Class Instances

      * 5.12.3. Functions

      * 5.12.4. Methods

      * 5.12.5. Code Objects

      * 5.12.6. Type Objects

      * 5.12.7. The Null Object

      * 5.12.8. The Ellipsis Object

      * 5.12.9. The NotImplemented Object

      * 5.12.10. Boolean Values

      * 5.12.11. Internal Objects

    * 5.13. Special Attributes

  * 6. Built-in Exceptions

    * 6.1. Exception hierarchy

  * 7. String Services

    * 7.1. "string" — Common string operations

      * 7.1.1. String constants

      * 7.1.2. Custom String Formatting

      * 7.1.3. Format String Syntax

        * 7.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language

        * 7.1.3.2. Format examples

      * 7.1.4. Template strings

      * 7.1.5. String functions

      * 7.1.6. Deprecated string functions

    * 7.2. "re" — Regular expression operations

      * 7.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax

      * 7.2.2. Module Contents

      * 7.2.3. Regular Expression Objects

      * 7.2.4. Match Objects

      * 7.2.5. Examples

        * 7.2.5.1. Checking For a Pair

        * 7.2.5.2. Simulating scanf()

        * 7.2.5.3. search() vs. match()

        * 7.2.5.4. Making a Phonebook

        * 7.2.5.5. Text Munging

        * 7.2.5.6. Finding all Adverbs

        * 7.2.5.7. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions

        * 7.2.5.8. Raw String Notation

    * 7.3. "struct" — Interpret strings as packed binary data

      * 7.3.1. Functions and Exceptions

      * 7.3.2. Format Strings

        * 7.3.2.1. Byte Order, Size, and Alignment

        * 7.3.2.2. Format Characters

        * 7.3.2.3. Examples

      * 7.3.3. Classes

    * 7.4. "difflib" — Helpers for computing deltas

      * 7.4.1. SequenceMatcher Objects

      * 7.4.2. SequenceMatcher Examples

      * 7.4.3. Differ Objects

      * 7.4.4. Differ Example

      * 7.4.5. A command-line interface to difflib

    * 7.5. "StringIO" — Read and write strings as files

    * 7.6. "cStringIO" — Faster version of "StringIO"

    * 7.7. "textwrap" — Text wrapping and filling

    * 7.8. "codecs" — Codec registry and base classes

      * 7.8.1. Codec Base Classes

        * 7.8.1.1. Codec Objects

        * 7.8.1.2. IncrementalEncoder Objects

        * 7.8.1.3. IncrementalDecoder Objects

        * 7.8.1.4. StreamWriter Objects

        * 7.8.1.5. StreamReader Objects

        * 7.8.1.6. StreamReaderWriter Objects

        * 7.8.1.7. StreamRecoder Objects

      * 7.8.2. Encodings and Unicode

      * 7.8.3. Standard Encodings

      * 7.8.4. Python Specific Encodings

      * 7.8.5. "encodings.idna" — Internationalized Domain Names in
        Applications

      * 7.8.6. "encodings.utf_8_sig" — UTF-8 codec with BOM
        signature

    * 7.9. "unicodedata" — Unicode Database

    * 7.10. "stringprep" — Internet String Preparation

    * 7.11. "fpformat" — Floating point conversions

  * 8. Data Types

    * 8.1. "datetime" — Basic date and time types

      * 8.1.1. Available Types

      * 8.1.2. "timedelta" Objects

      * 8.1.3. "date" Objects

      * 8.1.4. "datetime" Objects

      * 8.1.5. "time" Objects

      * 8.1.6. "tzinfo" Objects

      * 8.1.7. "strftime()" and "strptime()" Behavior

    * 8.2. "calendar" — General calendar-related functions

    * 8.3. "collections" — High-performance container datatypes

      * 8.3.1. "Counter" objects

      * 8.3.2. "deque" objects

        * 8.3.2.1. "deque" Recipes

      * 8.3.3. "defaultdict" objects

        * 8.3.3.1. "defaultdict" Examples

      * 8.3.4. "namedtuple()" Factory Function for Tuples with Named
        Fields

      * 8.3.5. "OrderedDict" objects

        * 8.3.5.1. "OrderedDict" Examples and Recipes

      * 8.3.6. Collections Abstract Base Classes

    * 8.4. "heapq" — Heap queue algorithm

      * 8.4.1. Basic Examples

      * 8.4.2. Priority Queue Implementation Notes

      * 8.4.3. Theory

    * 8.5. "bisect" — Array bisection algorithm

      * 8.5.1. Searching Sorted Lists

      * 8.5.2. Other Examples

    * 8.6. "array" — Efficient arrays of numeric values

    * 8.7. "sets" — Unordered collections of unique elements

      * 8.7.1. Set Objects

      * 8.7.2. Example

      * 8.7.3. Protocol for automatic conversion to immutable

      * 8.7.4. Comparison to the built-in "set" types

    * 8.8. "sched" — Event scheduler

      * 8.8.1. Scheduler Objects

    * 8.9. "mutex" — Mutual exclusion support

      * 8.9.1. Mutex Objects

    * 8.10. "Queue" — A synchronized queue class

      * 8.10.1. Queue Objects

    * 8.11. "weakref" — Weak references

      * 8.11.1. Weak Reference Objects

      * 8.11.2. Example

    * 8.12. "UserDict" — Class wrapper for dictionary objects

    * 8.13. "UserList" — Class wrapper for list objects

    * 8.14. "UserString" — Class wrapper for string objects

    * 8.15. "types" — Names for built-in types

    * 8.16. "new" — Creation of runtime internal objects

    * 8.17. "copy" — Shallow and deep copy operations

    * 8.18. "pprint" — Data pretty printer

      * 8.18.1. PrettyPrinter Objects

      * 8.18.2. pprint Example

    * 8.19. "repr" — Alternate "repr()" implementation

      * 8.19.1. Repr Objects

      * 8.19.2. Subclassing Repr Objects

  * 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules

    * 9.1. "numbers" — Numeric abstract base classes

      * 9.1.1. The numeric tower

      * 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors

        * 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs

        * 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations

    * 9.2. "math" — Mathematical functions

      * 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions

      * 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions

      * 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions

      * 9.2.4. Angular conversion

      * 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions

      * 9.2.6. Special functions

      * 9.2.7. Constants

    * 9.3. "cmath" — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

      * 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates

      * 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions

      * 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions

      * 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions

      * 9.3.5. Classification functions

      * 9.3.6. Constants

    * 9.4. "decimal" — Decimal fixed point and floating point
      arithmetic

      * 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial

      * 9.4.2. Decimal objects

        * 9.4.2.1. Logical operands

      * 9.4.3. Context objects

      * 9.4.4. Signals

      * 9.4.5. Floating Point Notes

        * 9.4.5.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased
          precision

        * 9.4.5.2. Special values

      * 9.4.6. Working with threads

      * 9.4.7. Recipes

      * 9.4.8. Decimal FAQ

    * 9.5. "fractions" — Rational numbers

    * 9.6. "random" — Generate pseudo-random numbers

    * 9.7. "itertools" — Functions creating iterators for efficient
      looping

      * 9.7.1. Itertool functions

      * 9.7.2. Recipes

    * 9.8. "functools" — Higher-order functions and operations on
      callable objects

      * 9.8.1. "partial" Objects

    * 9.9. "operator" — Standard operators as functions

      * 9.9.1. Mapping Operators to Functions

  * 10. File and Directory Access

    * 10.1. "os.path" — Common pathname manipulations

    * 10.2. "fileinput" — Iterate over lines from multiple input
      streams

    * 10.3. "stat" — Interpreting "stat()" results

    * 10.4. "statvfs" — Constants used with "os.statvfs()"

    * 10.5. "filecmp" — File and Directory Comparisons

      * 10.5.1. The "dircmp" class

    * 10.6. "tempfile" — Generate temporary files and directories

    * 10.7. "glob" — Unix style pathname pattern expansion

    * 10.8. "fnmatch" — Unix filename pattern matching

    * 10.9. "linecache" — Random access to text lines

    * 10.10. "shutil" — High-level file operations

      * 10.10.1. Directory and files operations

        * 10.10.1.1. copytree example

      * 10.10.2. Archiving operations

        * 10.10.2.1. Archiving example

    * 10.11. "dircache" — Cached directory listings

    * 10.12. "macpath" — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions

  * 11. Data Persistence

    * 11.1. "pickle" — Python object serialization

      * 11.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules

      * 11.1.2. Data stream format

      * 11.1.3. Usage

      * 11.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled?

      * 11.1.5. The pickle protocol

        * 11.1.5.1. Pickling and unpickling normal class instances

        * 11.1.5.2. Pickling and unpickling extension types

        * 11.1.5.3. Pickling and unpickling external objects

      * 11.1.6. Subclassing Unpicklers

      * 11.1.7. Example

    * 11.2. "cPickle" — A faster "pickle"

    * 11.3. "copy_reg" — Register "pickle" support functions

      * 11.3.1. Example

    * 11.4. "shelve" — Python object persistence

      * 11.4.1. Restrictions

      * 11.4.2. Example

    * 11.5. "marshal" — Internal Python object serialization

    * 11.6. "anydbm" — Generic access to DBM-style databases

    * 11.7. "whichdb" — Guess which DBM module created a database

    * 11.8. "dbm" — Simple “database” interface

    * 11.9. "gdbm" — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm

    * 11.10. "dbhash" — DBM-style interface to the BSD database
      library

      * 11.10.1. Database Objects

    * 11.11. "bsddb" — Interface to Berkeley DB library

      * 11.11.1. Hash, BTree and Record Objects

    * 11.12. "dumbdbm" — Portable DBM implementation

      * 11.12.1. Dumbdbm Objects

    * 11.13. "sqlite3" — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

      * 11.13.1. Module functions and constants

      * 11.13.2. Connection Objects

      * 11.13.3. Cursor Objects

      * 11.13.4. Row Objects

      * 11.13.5. SQLite and Python types

        * 11.13.5.1. Introduction

        * 11.13.5.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types
          in SQLite databases

          * 11.13.5.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself

          * 11.13.5.2.2. Registering an adapter callable

        * 11.13.5.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types

        * 11.13.5.4. Default adapters and converters

      * 11.13.6. Controlling Transactions

      * 11.13.7. Using "sqlite3" efficiently

        * 11.13.7.1. Using shortcut methods

        * 11.13.7.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index

        * 11.13.7.3. Using the connection as a context manager

      * 11.13.8. Common issues

        * 11.13.8.1. Multithreading

  * 12. Data Compression and Archiving

    * 12.1. "zlib" — Compression compatible with **gzip**

    * 12.2. "gzip" — Support for **gzip** files

      * 12.2.1. Examples of usage

    * 12.3. "bz2" — Compression compatible with **bzip2**

      * 12.3.1. (De)compression of files

      * 12.3.2. Sequential (de)compression

      * 12.3.3. One-shot (de)compression

    * 12.4. "zipfile" — Work with ZIP archives

      * 12.4.1. ZipFile Objects

      * 12.4.2. PyZipFile Objects

      * 12.4.3. ZipInfo Objects

      * 12.4.4. Command-Line Interface

        * 12.4.4.1. Command-line options

    * 12.5. "tarfile" — Read and write tar archive files

      * 12.5.1. TarFile Objects

      * 12.5.2. TarInfo Objects

      * 12.5.3. Examples

      * 12.5.4. Supported tar formats

      * 12.5.5. Unicode issues

  * 13. File Formats

    * 13.1. "csv" — CSV File Reading and Writing

      * 13.1.1. Module Contents

      * 13.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters

      * 13.1.3. Reader Objects

      * 13.1.4. Writer Objects

      * 13.1.5. Examples

    * 13.2. "ConfigParser" — Configuration file parser

      * 13.2.1. RawConfigParser Objects

      * 13.2.2. ConfigParser Objects

      * 13.2.3. SafeConfigParser Objects

      * 13.2.4. Examples

    * 13.3. "robotparser" —  Parser for robots.txt

    * 13.4. "netrc" — netrc file processing

      * 13.4.1. netrc Objects

    * 13.5. "xdrlib" — Encode and decode XDR data

      * 13.5.1. Packer Objects

      * 13.5.2. Unpacker Objects

      * 13.5.3. Exceptions

    * 13.6. "plistlib" — Generate and parse Mac OS X ".plist" files

      * 13.6.1. Examples

  * 14. Cryptographic Services

    * 14.1. "hashlib" — Secure hashes and message digests

      * 14.1.1. Key derivation

    * 14.2. "hmac" — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication

    * 14.3. "md5" — MD5 message digest algorithm

    * 14.4. "sha" — SHA-1 message digest algorithm

  * 15. Generic Operating System Services

    * 15.1. "os" — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

      * 15.1.1. Process Parameters

      * 15.1.2. File Object Creation

      * 15.1.3. File Descriptor Operations

        * 15.1.3.1. "open()" flag constants

      * 15.1.4. Files and Directories

      * 15.1.5. Process Management

      * 15.1.6. Miscellaneous System Information

      * 15.1.7. Miscellaneous Functions

    * 15.2. "io" — Core tools for working with streams

      * 15.2.1. Module Interface

      * 15.2.2. I/O Base Classes

      * 15.2.3. Raw File I/O

      * 15.2.4. Buffered Streams

      * 15.2.5. Text I/O

      * 15.2.6. Advanced topics

        * 15.2.6.1. Performance

          * 15.2.6.1.1. Binary I/O

          * 15.2.6.1.2. Text I/O

        * 15.2.6.2. Multi-threading

        * 15.2.6.3. Reentrancy

    * 15.3. "time" — Time access and conversions

    * 15.4. "argparse" — Parser for command-line options, arguments
      and sub-commands

      * 15.4.1. Example

        * 15.4.1.1. Creating a parser

        * 15.4.1.2. Adding arguments

        * 15.4.1.3. Parsing arguments

      * 15.4.2. ArgumentParser objects

        * 15.4.2.1. prog

        * 15.4.2.2. usage

        * 15.4.2.3. description

        * 15.4.2.4. epilog

        * 15.4.2.5. parents

        * 15.4.2.6. formatter_class

        * 15.4.2.7. prefix_chars

        * 15.4.2.8. fromfile_prefix_chars

        * 15.4.2.9. argument_default

        * 15.4.2.10. conflict_handler

        * 15.4.2.11. add_help

      * 15.4.3. The add_argument() method

        * 15.4.3.1. name or flags

        * 15.4.3.2. action

        * 15.4.3.3. nargs

        * 15.4.3.4. const

        * 15.4.3.5. default

        * 15.4.3.6. type

        * 15.4.3.7. choices

        * 15.4.3.8. required

        * 15.4.3.9. help

        * 15.4.3.10. metavar

        * 15.4.3.11. dest

        * 15.4.3.12. Action classes

      * 15.4.4. The parse_args() method

        * 15.4.4.1. Option value syntax

        * 15.4.4.2. Invalid arguments

        * 15.4.4.3. Arguments containing "-"

        * 15.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)

        * 15.4.4.5. Beyond "sys.argv"

        * 15.4.4.6. The Namespace object

      * 15.4.5. Other utilities

        * 15.4.5.1. Sub-commands

        * 15.4.5.2. FileType objects

        * 15.4.5.3. Argument groups

        * 15.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion

        * 15.4.5.5. Parser defaults

        * 15.4.5.6. Printing help

        * 15.4.5.7. Partial parsing

        * 15.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing

        * 15.4.5.9. Exiting methods

      * 15.4.6. Upgrading optparse code

    * 15.5. "optparse" — Parser for command line options

      * 15.5.1. Background

        * 15.5.1.1. Terminology

        * 15.5.1.2. What are options for?

        * 15.5.1.3. What are positional arguments for?

      * 15.5.2. Tutorial

        * 15.5.2.1. Understanding option actions

        * 15.5.2.2. The store action

        * 15.5.2.3. Handling boolean (flag) options

        * 15.5.2.4. Other actions

        * 15.5.2.5. Default values

        * 15.5.2.6. Generating help

          * 15.5.2.6.1. Grouping Options

        * 15.5.2.7. Printing a version string

        * 15.5.2.8. How "optparse" handles errors

        * 15.5.2.9. Putting it all together

      * 15.5.3. Reference Guide

        * 15.5.3.1. Creating the parser

        * 15.5.3.2. Populating the parser

        * 15.5.3.3. Defining options

        * 15.5.3.4. Option attributes

        * 15.5.3.5. Standard option actions

        * 15.5.3.6. Standard option types

        * 15.5.3.7. Parsing arguments

        * 15.5.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser

        * 15.5.3.9. Conflicts between options

        * 15.5.3.10. Cleanup

        * 15.5.3.11. Other methods

      * 15.5.4. Option Callbacks

        * 15.5.4.1. Defining a callback option

        * 15.5.4.2. How callbacks are called

        * 15.5.4.3. Raising errors in a callback

        * 15.5.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback

        * 15.5.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order

        * 15.5.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order
          (generalized)

        * 15.5.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition

        * 15.5.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments

        * 15.5.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments

      * 15.5.5. Extending "optparse"

        * 15.5.5.1. Adding new types

        * 15.5.5.2. Adding new actions

    * 15.6. "getopt" — C-style parser for command line options

    * 15.7. "logging" — Logging facility for Python

      * 15.7.1. Logger Objects

      * 15.7.2. Logging Levels

      * 15.7.3. Handler Objects

      * 15.7.4. Formatter Objects

      * 15.7.5. Filter Objects

      * 15.7.6. LogRecord Objects

      * 15.7.7. LogRecord attributes

      * 15.7.8. LoggerAdapter Objects

      * 15.7.9. Thread Safety

      * 15.7.10. Module-Level Functions

      * 15.7.11. Integration with the warnings module

    * 15.8. "logging.config" — Logging configuration

      * 15.8.1. Configuration functions

      * 15.8.2. Configuration dictionary schema

        * 15.8.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details

        * 15.8.2.2. Incremental Configuration

        * 15.8.2.3. Object connections

        * 15.8.2.4. User-defined objects

        * 15.8.2.5. Access to external objects

        * 15.8.2.6. Access to internal objects

        * 15.8.2.7. Import resolution and custom importers

      * 15.8.3. Configuration file format

    * 15.9. "logging.handlers" — Logging handlers

      * 15.9.1. StreamHandler

      * 15.9.2. FileHandler

      * 15.9.3. NullHandler

      * 15.9.4. WatchedFileHandler

      * 15.9.5. RotatingFileHandler

      * 15.9.6. TimedRotatingFileHandler

      * 15.9.7. SocketHandler

      * 15.9.8. DatagramHandler

      * 15.9.9. SysLogHandler

      * 15.9.10. NTEventLogHandler

      * 15.9.11. SMTPHandler

      * 15.9.12. MemoryHandler

      * 15.9.13. HTTPHandler

    * 15.10. "getpass" — Portable password input

    * 15.11. "curses" — Terminal handling for character-cell
      displays

      * 15.11.1. Functions

      * 15.11.2. Window Objects

      * 15.11.3. Constants

    * 15.12. "curses.textpad" — Text input widget for curses
      programs

      * 15.12.1. Textbox objects

    * 15.13. "curses.ascii" — Utilities for ASCII characters

    * 15.14. "curses.panel" — A panel stack extension for curses

      * 15.14.1. Functions

      * 15.14.2. Panel Objects

    * 15.15. "platform" —  Access to underlying platform’s
      identifying data

      * 15.15.1. Cross Platform

      * 15.15.2. Java Platform

      * 15.15.3. Windows Platform

        * 15.15.3.1. Win95/98 specific

      * 15.15.4. Mac OS Platform

      * 15.15.5. Unix Platforms

    * 15.16. "errno" — Standard errno system symbols

    * 15.17. "ctypes" — A foreign function library for Python

      * 15.17.1. ctypes tutorial

        * 15.17.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries

        * 15.17.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls

        * 15.17.1.3. Calling functions

        * 15.17.1.4. Fundamental data types

        * 15.17.1.5. Calling functions, continued

        * 15.17.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data
          types

        * 15.17.1.7. Specifying the required argument types
          (function prototypes)

        * 15.17.1.8. Return types

        * 15.17.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by
          reference)

        * 15.17.1.10. Structures and unions

        * 15.17.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order

        * 15.17.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions

        * 15.17.1.13. Arrays

        * 15.17.1.14. Pointers

        * 15.17.1.15. Type conversions

        * 15.17.1.16. Incomplete Types

        * 15.17.1.17. Callback functions

        * 15.17.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls

        * 15.17.1.19. Surprises

        * 15.17.1.20. Variable-sized data types

      * 15.17.2. ctypes reference

        * 15.17.2.1. Finding shared libraries

        * 15.17.2.2. Loading shared libraries

        * 15.17.2.3. Foreign functions

        * 15.17.2.4. Function prototypes

        * 15.17.2.5. Utility functions

        * 15.17.2.6. Data types

        * 15.17.2.7. Fundamental data types

        * 15.17.2.8. Structured data types

        * 15.17.2.9. Arrays and pointers

  * 16. Optional Operating System Services

    * 16.1. "select" — Waiting for I/O completion

      * 16.1.1. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects

      * 16.1.2. Polling Objects

      * 16.1.3. Kqueue Objects

      * 16.1.4. Kevent Objects

    * 16.2. "threading" — Higher-level threading interface

      * 16.2.1. Thread Objects

      * 16.2.2. Lock Objects

      * 16.2.3. RLock Objects

      * 16.2.4. Condition Objects

      * 16.2.5. Semaphore Objects

        * 16.2.5.1. "Semaphore" Example

      * 16.2.6. Event Objects

      * 16.2.7. Timer Objects

      * 16.2.8. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the
        "with" statement

      * 16.2.9. Importing in threaded code

    * 16.3. "thread" — Multiple threads of control

    * 16.4. "dummy_threading" — Drop-in replacement for the
      "threading" module

    * 16.5. "dummy_thread" — Drop-in replacement for the "thread"
      module

    * 16.6. "multiprocessing" — Process-based “threading” interface

      * 16.6.1. Introduction

        * 16.6.1.1. The "Process" class

        * 16.6.1.2. Exchanging objects between processes

        * 16.6.1.3. Synchronization between processes

        * 16.6.1.4. Sharing state between processes

        * 16.6.1.5. Using a pool of workers

      * 16.6.2. Reference

        * 16.6.2.1. "Process" and exceptions

        * 16.6.2.2. Pipes and Queues

        * 16.6.2.3. Miscellaneous

        * 16.6.2.4. Connection Objects

        * 16.6.2.5. Synchronization primitives

        * 16.6.2.6. Shared "ctypes" Objects

          * 16.6.2.6.1. The "multiprocessing.sharedctypes" module

        * 16.6.2.7. Managers

          * 16.6.2.7.1. Customized managers

          * 16.6.2.7.2. Using a remote manager

        * 16.6.2.8. Proxy Objects

          * 16.6.2.8.1. Cleanup

        * 16.6.2.9. Process Pools

        * 16.6.2.10. Listeners and Clients

          * 16.6.2.10.1. Address Formats

        * 16.6.2.11. Authentication keys

        * 16.6.2.12. Logging

        * 16.6.2.13. The "multiprocessing.dummy" module

      * 16.6.3. Programming guidelines

        * 16.6.3.1. All platforms

        * 16.6.3.2. Windows

      * 16.6.4. Examples

    * 16.7. "mmap" — Memory-mapped file support

    * 16.8. "readline" — GNU readline interface

      * 16.8.1. Init file

      * 16.8.2. Line buffer

      * 16.8.3. History file

      * 16.8.4. History list

      * 16.8.5. Startup hooks

      * 16.8.6. Completion

      * 16.8.7. Example

    * 16.9. "rlcompleter" — Completion function for GNU readline

      * 16.9.1. Completer Objects

  * 17. Interprocess Communication and Networking

    * 17.1. "subprocess" — Subprocess management

      * 17.1.1. Using the "subprocess" Module

        * 17.1.1.1. Frequently Used Arguments

        * 17.1.1.2. Popen Constructor

        * 17.1.1.3. Exceptions

        * 17.1.1.4. Security

      * 17.1.2. Popen Objects

      * 17.1.3. Windows Popen Helpers

        * 17.1.3.1. Constants

      * 17.1.4. Replacing Older Functions with the "subprocess"
        Module

        * 17.1.4.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote

        * 17.1.4.2. Replacing shell pipeline

        * 17.1.4.3. Replacing "os.system()"

        * 17.1.4.4. Replacing the "os.spawn" family

        * 17.1.4.5. Replacing "os.popen()", "os.popen2()",
          "os.popen3()"

        * 17.1.4.6. Replacing functions from the "popen2" module

      * 17.1.5. Notes

        * 17.1.5.1. Converting an argument sequence to a string on
          Windows

    * 17.2. "socket" — Low-level networking interface

      * 17.2.1. Socket Objects

      * 17.2.2. Example

    * 17.3. "ssl" — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

      * 17.3.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions

        * 17.3.1.1. Socket creation

        * 17.3.1.2. Context creation

        * 17.3.1.3. Random generation

        * 17.3.1.4. Certificate handling

        * 17.3.1.5. Constants

      * 17.3.2. SSL Sockets

      * 17.3.3. SSL Contexts

      * 17.3.4. Certificates

        * 17.3.4.1. Certificate chains

        * 17.3.4.2. CA certificates

        * 17.3.4.3. Combined key and certificate

        * 17.3.4.4. Self-signed certificates

      * 17.3.5. Examples

        * 17.3.5.1. Testing for SSL support

        * 17.3.5.2. Client-side operation

        * 17.3.5.3. Server-side operation

      * 17.3.6. Notes on non-blocking sockets

      * 17.3.7. Security considerations

        * 17.3.7.1. Best defaults

        * 17.3.7.2. Manual settings

          * 17.3.7.2.1. Verifying certificates

          * 17.3.7.2.2. Protocol versions

          * 17.3.7.2.3. Cipher selection

        * 17.3.7.3. Multi-processing

      * 17.3.8. LibreSSL support

    * 17.4. "signal" — Set handlers for asynchronous events

      * 17.4.1. Example

    * 17.5. "popen2" — Subprocesses with accessible I/O streams

      * 17.5.1. Popen3 and Popen4 Objects

      * 17.5.2. Flow Control Issues

    * 17.6. "asyncore" — Asynchronous socket handler

      * 17.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client

      * 17.6.2. asyncore Example basic echo server

    * 17.7. "asynchat" — Asynchronous socket command/response
      handler

      * 17.7.1. asynchat - Auxiliary Classes

      * 17.7.2. asynchat Example

  * 18. Internet Data Handling

    * 18.1. "email" — An email and MIME handling package

      * 18.1.1. "email.message": Representing an email message

      * 18.1.2. "email.parser": Parsing email messages

        * 18.1.2.1. FeedParser API

        * 18.1.2.2. Parser class API

        * 18.1.2.3. Additional notes

      * 18.1.3. "email.generator": Generating MIME documents

      * 18.1.4. "email.mime": Creating email and MIME objects from
        scratch

      * 18.1.5. "email.header": Internationalized headers

      * 18.1.6. "email.charset": Representing character sets

      * 18.1.7. "email.encoders": Encoders

      * 18.1.8. "email.errors": Exception and Defect classes

      * 18.1.9. "email.utils": Miscellaneous utilities

      * 18.1.10. "email.iterators": Iterators

      * 18.1.11. "email": Examples

      * 18.1.12. Package History

      * 18.1.13. Differences from "mimelib"

    * 18.2. "json" — JSON encoder and decoder

      * 18.2.1. Basic Usage

      * 18.2.2. Encoders and Decoders

      * 18.2.3. Standard Compliance and Interoperability

        * 18.2.3.1. Character Encodings

        * 18.2.3.2. Infinite and NaN Number Values

        * 18.2.3.3. Repeated Names Within an Object

        * 18.2.3.4. Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values

        * 18.2.3.5. Implementation Limitations

    * 18.3. "mailcap" — Mailcap file handling

    * 18.4. "mailbox" — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

      * 18.4.1. "Mailbox" objects

        * 18.4.1.1. "Maildir"

        * 18.4.1.2. "mbox"

        * 18.4.1.3. "MH"

        * 18.4.1.4. "Babyl"

        * 18.4.1.5. "MMDF"

      * 18.4.2. "Message" objects

        * 18.4.2.1. "MaildirMessage"

        * 18.4.2.2. "mboxMessage"

        * 18.4.2.3. "MHMessage"

        * 18.4.2.4. "BabylMessage"

        * 18.4.2.5. "MMDFMessage"

      * 18.4.3. Exceptions

      * 18.4.4. Deprecated classes and methods

      * 18.4.5. Examples

    * 18.5. "mhlib" — Access to MH mailboxes

      * 18.5.1. MH Objects

      * 18.5.2. Folder Objects

      * 18.5.3. Message Objects

    * 18.6. "mimetools" — Tools for parsing MIME messages

      * 18.6.1. Additional Methods of Message Objects

    * 18.7. "mimetypes" — Map filenames to MIME types

      * 18.7.1. MimeTypes Objects

    * 18.8. "MimeWriter" — Generic MIME file writer

      * 18.8.1. MimeWriter Objects

    * 18.9. "mimify" — MIME processing of mail messages

    * 18.10. "multifile" — Support for files containing distinct
      parts

      * 18.10.1. MultiFile Objects

      * 18.10.2. "MultiFile" Example

    * 18.11. "rfc822" — Parse RFC 2822 mail headers

      * 18.11.1. Message Objects

      * 18.11.2. AddressList Objects

    * 18.12. "base64" — RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data
      Encodings

    * 18.13. "binhex" — Encode and decode binhex4 files

      * 18.13.1. Notes

    * 18.14. "binascii" — Convert between binary and ASCII

    * 18.15. "quopri" — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

    * 18.16. "uu" — Encode and decode uuencode files

  * 19. Structured Markup Processing Tools

    * 19.1. "HTMLParser" — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

      * 19.1.1. Example HTML Parser Application

      * 19.1.2. "HTMLParser" Methods

      * 19.1.3. Examples

    * 19.2. "sgmllib" — Simple SGML parser

    * 19.3. "htmllib" — A parser for HTML documents

      * 19.3.1. HTMLParser Objects

    * 19.4. "htmlentitydefs" — Definitions of HTML general entities

    * 19.5. XML Processing Modules

    * 19.6. XML vulnerabilities

      * 19.6.1. defused packages

    * 19.7. "xml.etree.ElementTree" — The ElementTree XML API

      * 19.7.1. Tutorial

        * 19.7.1.1. XML tree and elements

        * 19.7.1.2. Parsing XML

        * 19.7.1.3. Finding interesting elements

        * 19.7.1.4. Modifying an XML File

        * 19.7.1.5. Building XML documents

        * 19.7.1.6. Parsing XML with Namespaces

        * 19.7.1.7. Additional resources

      * 19.7.2. XPath support

        * 19.7.2.1. Example

        * 19.7.2.2. Supported XPath syntax

      * 19.7.3. Reference

        * 19.7.3.1. Functions

        * 19.7.3.2. Element Objects

        * 19.7.3.3. ElementTree Objects

        * 19.7.3.4. QName Objects

        * 19.7.3.5. TreeBuilder Objects

        * 19.7.3.6. XMLParser Objects

    * 19.8. "xml.dom" — The Document Object Model API

      * 19.8.1. Module Contents

      * 19.8.2. Objects in the DOM

        * 19.8.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects

        * 19.8.2.2. Node Objects

        * 19.8.2.3. NodeList Objects

        * 19.8.2.4. DocumentType Objects

        * 19.8.2.5. Document Objects

        * 19.8.2.6. Element Objects

        * 19.8.2.7. Attr Objects

        * 19.8.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects

        * 19.8.2.9. Comment Objects

        * 19.8.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects

        * 19.8.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects

        * 19.8.2.12. Exceptions

      * 19.8.3. Conformance

        * 19.8.3.1. Type Mapping

        * 19.8.3.2. Accessor Methods

    * 19.9. "xml.dom.minidom" — Minimal DOM implementation

      * 19.9.1. DOM Objects

      * 19.9.2. DOM Example

      * 19.9.3. minidom and the DOM standard

    * 19.10. "xml.dom.pulldom" — Support for building partial DOM
      trees

      * 19.10.1. DOMEventStream Objects

    * 19.11. "xml.sax" — Support for SAX2 parsers

      * 19.11.1. SAXException Objects

    * 19.12. "xml.sax.handler" — Base classes for SAX handlers

      * 19.12.1. ContentHandler Objects

      * 19.12.2. DTDHandler Objects

      * 19.12.3. EntityResolver Objects

      * 19.12.4. ErrorHandler Objects

    * 19.13. "xml.sax.saxutils" — SAX Utilities

    * 19.14. "xml.sax.xmlreader" — Interface for XML parsers

      * 19.14.1. XMLReader Objects

      * 19.14.2. IncrementalParser Objects

      * 19.14.3. Locator Objects

      * 19.14.4. InputSource Objects

      * 19.14.5. The "Attributes" Interface

      * 19.14.6. The "AttributesNS" Interface

    * 19.15. "xml.parsers.expat" — Fast XML parsing using Expat

      * 19.15.1. XMLParser Objects

      * 19.15.2. ExpatError Exceptions

      * 19.15.3. Example

      * 19.15.4. Content Model Descriptions

      * 19.15.5. Expat error constants

  * 20. Internet Protocols and Support

    * 20.1. "webbrowser" — Convenient Web-browser controller

      * 20.1.1. Browser Controller Objects

    * 20.2. "cgi" — Common Gateway Interface support

      * 20.2.1. Introduction

      * 20.2.2. Using the cgi module

      * 20.2.3. Higher Level Interface

      * 20.2.4. Old classes

      * 20.2.5. Functions

      * 20.2.6. Caring about security

      * 20.2.7. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system

      * 20.2.8. Testing your CGI script

      * 20.2.9. Debugging CGI scripts

      * 20.2.10. Common problems and solutions

    * 20.3. "cgitb" — Traceback manager for CGI scripts

    * 20.4. "wsgiref" — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

      * 20.4.1. "wsgiref.util" – WSGI environment utilities

      * 20.4.2. "wsgiref.headers" – WSGI response header tools

      * 20.4.3. "wsgiref.simple_server" – a simple WSGI HTTP server

      * 20.4.4. "wsgiref.validate" — WSGI conformance checker

      * 20.4.5. "wsgiref.handlers" – server/gateway base classes

      * 20.4.6. Examples

    * 20.5. "urllib" — Open arbitrary resources by URL

      * 20.5.1. High-level interface

      * 20.5.2. Utility functions

      * 20.5.3. URL Opener objects

      * 20.5.4. "urllib" Restrictions

      * 20.5.5. Examples

    * 20.6. "urllib2" — extensible library for opening URLs

      * 20.6.1. Request Objects

      * 20.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects

      * 20.6.3. BaseHandler Objects

      * 20.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects

      * 20.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects

      * 20.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects

      * 20.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects

      * 20.6.8. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects

      * 20.6.9. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects

      * 20.6.10. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects

      * 20.6.11. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects

      * 20.6.12. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects

      * 20.6.13. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects

      * 20.6.14. HTTPHandler Objects

      * 20.6.15. HTTPSHandler Objects

      * 20.6.16. FileHandler Objects

      * 20.6.17. FTPHandler Objects

      * 20.6.18. CacheFTPHandler Objects

      * 20.6.19. UnknownHandler Objects

      * 20.6.20. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects

      * 20.6.21. Examples

    * 20.7. "httplib" — HTTP protocol client

      * 20.7.1. HTTPConnection Objects

      * 20.7.2. HTTPResponse Objects

      * 20.7.3. Examples

    * 20.8. "ftplib" — FTP protocol client

      * 20.8.1. FTP Objects

      * 20.8.2. FTP_TLS Objects

    * 20.9. "poplib" — POP3 protocol client

      * 20.9.1. POP3 Objects

      * 20.9.2. POP3 Example

    * 20.10. "imaplib" — IMAP4 protocol client

      * 20.10.1. IMAP4 Objects

      * 20.10.2. IMAP4 Example

    * 20.11. "nntplib" — NNTP protocol client

      * 20.11.1. NNTP Objects

    * 20.12. "smtplib" — SMTP protocol client

      * 20.12.1. SMTP Objects

      * 20.12.2. SMTP Example

    * 20.13. "smtpd" — SMTP Server

      * 20.13.1. SMTPServer Objects

      * 20.13.2. DebuggingServer Objects

      * 20.13.3. PureProxy Objects

      * 20.13.4. MailmanProxy Objects

    * 20.14. "telnetlib" — Telnet client

      * 20.14.1. Telnet Objects

      * 20.14.2. Telnet Example

    * 20.15. "uuid" — UUID objects according to RFC 4122

      * 20.15.1. Example

    * 20.16. "urlparse" — Parse URLs into components

      * 20.16.1. Results of "urlparse()" and "urlsplit()"

    * 20.17. "SocketServer" — A framework for network servers

      * 20.17.1. Server Creation Notes

      * 20.17.2. Server Objects

      * 20.17.3. Request Handler Objects

      * 20.17.4. Examples

        * 20.17.4.1. "SocketServer.TCPServer" Example

        * 20.17.4.2. "SocketServer.UDPServer" Example

        * 20.17.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins

    * 20.18. "BaseHTTPServer" — Basic HTTP server

      * 20.18.1. More examples

    * 20.19. "SimpleHTTPServer" — Simple HTTP request handler

    * 20.20. "CGIHTTPServer" — CGI-capable HTTP request handler

    * 20.21. "cookielib" — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

      * 20.21.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects

      * 20.21.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web
        browsers

      * 20.21.3. CookiePolicy Objects

      * 20.21.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects

      * 20.21.5. Cookie Objects

      * 20.21.6. Examples

    * 20.22. "Cookie" — HTTP state management

      * 20.22.1. Cookie Objects

      * 20.22.2. Morsel Objects

      * 20.22.3. Example

    * 20.23. "xmlrpclib" — XML-RPC client access

      * 20.23.1. ServerProxy Objects

      * 20.23.2. Boolean Objects

      * 20.23.3. DateTime Objects

      * 20.23.4. Binary Objects

      * 20.23.5. Fault Objects

      * 20.23.6. ProtocolError Objects

      * 20.23.7. MultiCall Objects

      * 20.23.8. Convenience Functions

      * 20.23.9. Example of Client Usage

      * 20.23.10. Example of Client and Server Usage

    * 20.24. "SimpleXMLRPCServer" — Basic XML-RPC server

      * 20.24.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects

        * 20.24.1.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Example

      * 20.24.2. CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

    * 20.25. "DocXMLRPCServer" — Self-documenting XML-RPC server

      * 20.25.1. DocXMLRPCServer Objects

      * 20.25.2. DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

  * 21. Multimedia Services

    * 21.1. "audioop" — Manipulate raw audio data

    * 21.2. "imageop" — Manipulate raw image data

    * 21.3. "aifc" — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files

    * 21.4. "sunau" — Read and write Sun AU files

      * 21.4.1. AU_read Objects

      * 21.4.2. AU_write Objects

    * 21.5. "wave" — Read and write WAV files

      * 21.5.1. Wave_read Objects

      * 21.5.2. Wave_write Objects

    * 21.6. "chunk" — Read IFF chunked data

    * 21.7. "colorsys" — Conversions between color systems

    * 21.8. "imghdr" — Determine the type of an image

    * 21.9. "sndhdr" — Determine type of sound file

    * 21.10. "ossaudiodev" — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

      * 21.10.1. Audio Device Objects

      * 21.10.2. Mixer Device Objects

  * 22. Internationalization

    * 22.1. "gettext" — Multilingual internationalization services

      * 22.1.1. GNU **gettext** API

      * 22.1.2. Class-based API

        * 22.1.2.1. The "NullTranslations" class

        * 22.1.2.2. The "GNUTranslations" class

        * 22.1.2.3. Solaris message catalog support

        * 22.1.2.4. The Catalog constructor

      * 22.1.3. Internationalizing your programs and modules

        * 22.1.3.1. Localizing your module

        * 22.1.3.2. Localizing your application

        * 22.1.3.3. Changing languages on the fly

        * 22.1.3.4. Deferred translations

        * 22.1.3.5. "gettext()" vs. "lgettext()"

      * 22.1.4. Acknowledgements

    * 22.2. "locale" — Internationalization services

      * 22.2.1. Background, details, hints, tips and caveats

      * 22.2.2. For extension writers and programs that embed Python

      * 22.2.3. Access to message catalogs

  * 23. Program Frameworks

    * 23.1. "cmd" — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

      * 23.1.1. Cmd Objects

    * 23.2. "shlex" — Simple lexical analysis

      * 23.2.1. shlex Objects

      * 23.2.2. Parsing Rules

  * 24. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk

    * 24.1. "Tkinter" — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

      * 24.1.1. Tkinter Modules

      * 24.1.2. Tkinter Life Preserver

        * 24.1.2.1. How To Use This Section

        * 24.1.2.2. A Simple Hello World Program

      * 24.1.3. A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk

      * 24.1.4. Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter

      * 24.1.5. How Tk and Tkinter are Related

      * 24.1.6. Handy Reference

        * 24.1.6.1. Setting Options

        * 24.1.6.2. The Packer

        * 24.1.6.3. Packer Options

        * 24.1.6.4. Coupling Widget Variables

        * 24.1.6.5. The Window Manager

        * 24.1.6.6. Tk Option Data Types

        * 24.1.6.7. Bindings and Events

        * 24.1.6.8. The index Parameter

        * 24.1.6.9. Images

      * 24.1.7. File Handlers

    * 24.2. "ttk" — Tk themed widgets

      * 24.2.1. Using Ttk

      * 24.2.2. Ttk Widgets

      * 24.2.3. Widget

        * 24.2.3.1. Standard Options

        * 24.2.3.2. Scrollable Widget Options

        * 24.2.3.3. Label Options

        * 24.2.3.4. Compatibility Options

        * 24.2.3.5. Widget States

        * 24.2.3.6. ttk.Widget

      * 24.2.4. Combobox

        * 24.2.4.1. Options

        * 24.2.4.2. Virtual events

        * 24.2.4.3. ttk.Combobox

      * 24.2.5. Notebook

        * 24.2.5.1. Options

        * 24.2.5.2. Tab Options

        * 24.2.5.3. Tab Identifiers

        * 24.2.5.4. Virtual Events

        * 24.2.5.5. ttk.Notebook

      * 24.2.6. Progressbar

        * 24.2.6.1. Options

        * 24.2.6.2. ttk.Progressbar

      * 24.2.7. Separator

        * 24.2.7.1. Options

      * 24.2.8. Sizegrip

        * 24.2.8.1. Platform-specific notes

        * 24.2.8.2. Bugs

      * 24.2.9. Treeview

        * 24.2.9.1. Options

        * 24.2.9.2. Item Options

        * 24.2.9.3. Tag Options

        * 24.2.9.4. Column Identifiers

        * 24.2.9.5. Virtual Events

        * 24.2.9.6. ttk.Treeview

      * 24.2.10. Ttk Styling

        * 24.2.10.1. Layouts

    * 24.3. "Tix" — Extension widgets for Tk

      * 24.3.1. Using Tix

      * 24.3.2. Tix Widgets

        * 24.3.2.1. Basic Widgets

        * 24.3.2.2. File Selectors

        * 24.3.2.3. Hierarchical ListBox

        * 24.3.2.4. Tabular ListBox

        * 24.3.2.5. Manager Widgets

        * 24.3.2.6. Image Types

        * 24.3.2.7. Miscellaneous Widgets

        * 24.3.2.8. Form Geometry Manager

      * 24.3.3. Tix Commands

    * 24.4. "ScrolledText" — Scrolled Text Widget

    * 24.5. "turtle" — Turtle graphics for Tk

      * 24.5.1. Introduction

      * 24.5.2. Overview over available Turtle and Screen methods

        * 24.5.2.1. Turtle methods

        * 24.5.2.2. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen

      * 24.5.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding
        functions

        * 24.5.3.1. Turtle motion

        * 24.5.3.2. Tell Turtle’s state

        * 24.5.3.3. Settings for measurement

        * 24.5.3.4. Pen control

          * 24.5.3.4.1. Drawing state

          * 24.5.3.4.2. Color control

          * 24.5.3.4.3. Filling

          * 24.5.3.4.4. More drawing control

        * 24.5.3.5. Turtle state

          * 24.5.3.5.1. Visibility

          * 24.5.3.5.2. Appearance

        * 24.5.3.6. Using events

        * 24.5.3.7. Special Turtle methods

        * 24.5.3.8. Excursus about the use of compound shapes

      * 24.5.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding
        functions

        * 24.5.4.1. Window control

        * 24.5.4.2. Animation control

        * 24.5.4.3. Using screen events

        * 24.5.4.4. Settings and special methods

        * 24.5.4.5. Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from
          TurtleScreen

      * 24.5.5. The public classes of the module "turtle"

      * 24.5.6. Help and configuration

        * 24.5.6.1. How to use help

        * 24.5.6.2. Translation of docstrings into different
          languages

        * 24.5.6.3. How to configure Screen and Turtles

      * 24.5.7. Demo scripts

    * 24.6. IDLE

      * 24.6.1. Menus

        * 24.6.1.1. File menu (Shell and Editor)

        * 24.6.1.2. Edit menu (Shell and Editor)

        * 24.6.1.3. Format menu (Editor window only)

        * 24.6.1.4. Run menu (Editor window only)

        * 24.6.1.5. Shell menu (Shell window only)

        * 24.6.1.6. Debug menu (Shell window only)

        * 24.6.1.7. Options menu (Shell and Editor)

        * 24.6.1.8. Window menu (Shell and Editor)

        * 24.6.1.9. Help menu (Shell and Editor)

        * 24.6.1.10. Context Menus

      * 24.6.2. Editing and navigation

        * 24.6.2.1. Automatic indentation

        * 24.6.2.2. Completions

        * 24.6.2.3. Calltips

        * 24.6.2.4. Python Shell window

        * 24.6.2.5. Text colors

      * 24.6.3. Startup and code execution

        * 24.6.3.1. Command line usage

        * 24.6.3.2. IDLE-console differences

        * 24.6.3.3. Running without a subprocess

      * 24.6.4. Help and preferences

        * 24.6.4.1. Additional help sources

        * 24.6.4.2. Setting preferences

        * 24.6.4.3. Extensions

    * 24.7. Other Graphical User Interface Packages

  * 25. Development Tools

    * 25.1. "pydoc" — Documentation generator and online help system

    * 25.2. "doctest" — Test interactive Python examples

      * 25.2.1. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings

      * 25.2.2. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File

      * 25.2.3. How It Works

        * 25.2.3.1. Which Docstrings Are Examined?

        * 25.2.3.2. How are Docstring Examples Recognized?

        * 25.2.3.3. What’s the Execution Context?

        * 25.2.3.4. What About Exceptions?

        * 25.2.3.5. Option Flags

        * 25.2.3.6. Directives

        * 25.2.3.7. Warnings

      * 25.2.4. Basic API

      * 25.2.5. Unittest API

      * 25.2.6. Advanced API

        * 25.2.6.1. DocTest Objects

        * 25.2.6.2. Example Objects

        * 25.2.6.3. DocTestFinder objects

        * 25.2.6.4. DocTestParser objects

        * 25.2.6.5. DocTestRunner objects

        * 25.2.6.6. OutputChecker objects

      * 25.2.7. Debugging

      * 25.2.8. Soapbox

    * 25.3. "unittest" — Unit testing framework

      * 25.3.1. Basic example

      * 25.3.2. Command-Line Interface

        * 25.3.2.1. Command-line options

      * 25.3.3. Test Discovery

      * 25.3.4. Organizing test code

      * 25.3.5. Re-using old test code

      * 25.3.6. Skipping tests and expected failures

      * 25.3.7. Classes and functions

        * 25.3.7.1. Test cases

          * 25.3.7.1.1. Deprecated aliases

        * 25.3.7.2. Grouping tests

        * 25.3.7.3. Loading and running tests

          * 25.3.7.3.1. load_tests Protocol

      * 25.3.8. Class and Module Fixtures

        * 25.3.8.1. setUpClass and tearDownClass

        * 25.3.8.2. setUpModule and tearDownModule

      * 25.3.9. Signal Handling

    * 25.4. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

      * 25.4.1. Using 2to3

      * 25.4.2. Fixers

      * 25.4.3. "lib2to3" - 2to3’s library

    * 25.5. "test" — Regression tests package for Python

      * 25.5.1. Writing Unit Tests for the "test" package

      * 25.5.2. Running tests using the command-line interface

    * 25.6. "test.support" — Utility functions for tests

  * 26. Debugging and Profiling

    * 26.1. "bdb" — Debugger framework

    * 26.2. "pdb" — The Python Debugger

    * 26.3. Debugger Commands

    * 26.4. The Python Profilers

      * 26.4.1. Introduction to the profilers

      * 26.4.2. Instant User’s Manual

      * 26.4.3. "profile" and "cProfile" Module Reference

      * 26.4.4. The "Stats" Class

      * 26.4.5. What Is Deterministic Profiling?

      * 26.4.6. Limitations

      * 26.4.7. Calibration

      * 26.4.8. Using a custom timer

    * 26.5. "hotshot" — High performance logging profiler

      * 26.5.1. Profile Objects

      * 26.5.2. Using hotshot data

      * 26.5.3. Example Usage

    * 26.6. "timeit" — Measure execution time of small code snippets

      * 26.6.1. Basic Examples

      * 26.6.2. Python Interface

      * 26.6.3. Command-Line Interface

      * 26.6.4. Examples

    * 26.7. "trace" — Trace or track Python statement execution

      * 26.7.1. Command-Line Usage

        * 26.7.1.1. Main options

        * 26.7.1.2. Modifiers

        * 26.7.1.3. Filters

      * 26.7.2. Programmatic Interface

  * 27. Software Packaging and Distribution

    * 27.1. "distutils" — Building and installing Python modules

    * 27.2. "ensurepip" — Bootstrapping the "pip" installer

      * 27.2.1. Command line interface

      * 27.2.2. Module API

  * 28. Python Runtime Services

    * 28.1. "sys" — System-specific parameters and functions

    * 28.2. "sysconfig" — Provide access to Python’s configuration
      information

      * 28.2.1. Configuration variables

      * 28.2.2. Installation paths

      * 28.2.3. Other functions

    * 28.3. "__builtin__" — Built-in objects

    * 28.4. "future_builtins" — Python 3 builtins

    * 28.5. "__main__" — Top-level script environment

    * 28.6. "warnings" — Warning control

      * 28.6.1. Warning Categories

      * 28.6.2. The Warnings Filter

        * 28.6.2.1. Default Warning Filters

      * 28.6.3. Temporarily Suppressing Warnings

      * 28.6.4. Testing Warnings

      * 28.6.5. Updating Code For New Versions of Python

      * 28.6.6. Available Functions

      * 28.6.7. Available Context Managers

    * 28.7. "contextlib" — Utilities for "with"-statement contexts

    * 28.8. "abc" — Abstract Base Classes

    * 28.9. "atexit" — Exit handlers

      * 28.9.1. "atexit" Example

    * 28.10. "traceback" — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

      * 28.10.1. Traceback Examples

    * 28.11. "__future__" — Future statement definitions

    * 28.12. "gc" — Garbage Collector interface

    * 28.13. "inspect" — Inspect live objects

      * 28.13.1. Types and members

      * 28.13.2. Retrieving source code

      * 28.13.3. Classes and functions

      * 28.13.4. The interpreter stack

    * 28.14. "site" — Site-specific configuration hook

    * 28.15. "user" — User-specific configuration hook

    * 28.16. "fpectl" — Floating point exception control

      * 28.16.1. Example

      * 28.16.2. Limitations and other considerations

  * 29. Custom Python Interpreters

    * 29.1. "code" — Interpreter base classes

      * 29.1.1. Interactive Interpreter Objects

      * 29.1.2. Interactive Console Objects

    * 29.2. "codeop" — Compile Python code

  * 30. Restricted Execution

    * 30.1. "rexec" — Restricted execution framework

      * 30.1.1. RExec Objects

      * 30.1.2. Defining restricted environments

      * 30.1.3. An example

    * 30.2. "Bastion" — Restricting access to objects

  * 31. Importing Modules

    * 31.1. "imp" — Access the "import" internals

      * 31.1.1. Examples

    * 31.2. "importlib" — Convenience wrappers for "__import__()"

    * 31.3. "imputil" — Import utilities

      * 31.3.1. Examples

    * 31.4. "zipimport" — Import modules from Zip archives

      * 31.4.1. zipimporter Objects

      * 31.4.2. Examples

    * 31.5. "pkgutil" — Package extension utility

    * 31.6. "modulefinder" — Find modules used by a script

      * 31.6.1. Example usage of "ModuleFinder"

    * 31.7. "runpy" — Locating and executing Python modules

  * 32. Python Language Services

    * 32.1. "parser" — Access Python parse trees

      * 32.1.1. Creating ST Objects

      * 32.1.2. Converting ST Objects

      * 32.1.3. Queries on ST Objects

      * 32.1.4. Exceptions and Error Handling

      * 32.1.5. ST Objects

      * 32.1.6. Example: Emulation of "compile()"

    * 32.2. "ast" — Abstract Syntax Trees

      * 32.2.1. Node classes

      * 32.2.2. Abstract Grammar

      * 32.2.3. "ast" Helpers

    * 32.3. "symtable" — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

      * 32.3.1. Generating Symbol Tables

      * 32.3.2. Examining Symbol Tables

    * 32.4. "symbol" — Constants used with Python parse trees

    * 32.5. "token" — Constants used with Python parse trees

    * 32.6. "keyword" — Testing for Python keywords

    * 32.7. "tokenize" — Tokenizer for Python source

    * 32.8. "tabnanny" — Detection of ambiguous indentation

    * 32.9. "pyclbr" — Python class browser support

      * 32.9.1. Class Objects

      * 32.9.2. Function Objects

    * 32.10. "py_compile" — Compile Python source files

    * 32.11. "compileall" — Byte-compile Python libraries

      * 32.11.1. Command-line use

      * 32.11.2. Public functions

    * 32.12. "dis" — Disassembler for Python bytecode

      * 32.12.1. Python Bytecode Instructions

    * 32.13. "pickletools" — Tools for pickle developers

  * 33. Python compiler package

    * 33.1. The basic interface

    * 33.2. Limitations

    * 33.3. Python Abstract Syntax

      * 33.3.1. AST Nodes

      * 33.3.2. Assignment nodes

      * 33.3.3. Examples

    * 33.4. Using Visitors to Walk ASTs

    * 33.5. Bytecode Generation

  * 34. Miscellaneous Services

    * 34.1. "formatter" — Generic output formatting

      * 34.1.1. The Formatter Interface

      * 34.1.2. Formatter Implementations

      * 34.1.3. The Writer Interface

      * 34.1.4. Writer Implementations

  * 35. MS Windows Specific Services

    * 35.1. "msilib" — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

      * 35.1.1. Database Objects

      * 35.1.2. View Objects

      * 35.1.3. Summary Information Objects

      * 35.1.4. Record Objects

      * 35.1.5. Errors

      * 35.1.6. CAB Objects

      * 35.1.7. Directory Objects

      * 35.1.8. Features

      * 35.1.9. GUI classes

      * 35.1.10. Precomputed tables

    * 35.2. "msvcrt" — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

      * 35.2.1. File Operations

      * 35.2.2. Console I/O

      * 35.2.3. Other Functions

    * 35.3. "_winreg" — Windows registry access

      * 35.3.1. Constants

        * 35.3.1.1. HKEY_* Constants

        * 35.3.1.2. Access Rights

          * 35.3.1.2.1. 64-bit Specific

        * 35.3.1.3. Value Types

      * 35.3.2. Registry Handle Objects

    * 35.4. "winsound" — Sound-playing interface for Windows

  * 36. Unix Specific Services

    * 36.1. "posix" — The most common POSIX system calls

      * 36.1.1. Large File Support

      * 36.1.2. Notable Module Contents

    * 36.2. "pwd" — The password database

    * 36.3. "spwd" — The shadow password database

    * 36.4. "grp" — The group database

    * 36.5. "crypt" — Function to check Unix passwords

    * 36.6. "dl" — Call C functions in shared objects

      * 36.6.1. Dl Objects

    * 36.7. "termios" — POSIX style tty control

      * 36.7.1. Example

    * 36.8. "tty" — Terminal control functions

    * 36.9. "pty" — Pseudo-terminal utilities

    * 36.10. "fcntl" — The "fcntl" and "ioctl" system calls

    * 36.11. "pipes" — Interface to shell pipelines

      * 36.11.1. Template Objects

    * 36.12. "posixfile" — File-like objects with locking support

    * 36.13. "resource" — Resource usage information

      * 36.13.1. Resource Limits

      * 36.13.2. Resource Usage

    * 36.14. "nis" — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)

    * 36.15. "syslog" — Unix syslog library routines

      * 36.15.1. Examples

        * 36.15.1.1. Simple example

    * 36.16. "commands" — Utilities for running commands

  * 37. Mac OS X specific services

    * 37.1. "ic" — Access to the Mac OS X Internet Config

      * 37.1.1. IC Objects

    * 37.2. "MacOS" — Access to Mac OS interpreter features

    * 37.3. "macostools" — Convenience routines for file
      manipulation

    * 37.4. "findertools" — The **finder**’s Apple Events interface

    * 37.5. "EasyDialogs" — Basic Macintosh dialogs

      * 37.5.1. ProgressBar Objects

    * 37.6. "FrameWork" — Interactive application framework

      * 37.6.1. Application Objects

      * 37.6.2. Window Objects

      * 37.6.3. ControlsWindow Object

      * 37.6.4. ScrolledWindow Object

      * 37.6.5. DialogWindow Objects

    * 37.7. "autoGIL" — Global Interpreter Lock handling in event
      loops

    * 37.8. Mac OS Toolbox Modules

      * 37.8.1. "Carbon.AE" — Apple Events

      * 37.8.2. "Carbon.AH" — Apple Help

      * 37.8.3. "Carbon.App" — Appearance Manager

      * 37.8.4. "Carbon.Appearance" — Appearance Manager constants

      * 37.8.5. "Carbon.CF" — Core Foundation

      * 37.8.6. "Carbon.CG" — Core Graphics

      * 37.8.7. "Carbon.CarbonEvt" — Carbon Event Manager

      * 37.8.8. "Carbon.CarbonEvents" — Carbon Event Manager
        constants

      * 37.8.9. "Carbon.Cm" — Component Manager

      * 37.8.10. "Carbon.Components" — Component Manager constants

      * 37.8.11. "Carbon.ControlAccessor" — Control Manager accssors

      * 37.8.12. "Carbon.Controls" — Control Manager constants

      * 37.8.13. "Carbon.CoreFounation" — CoreFounation constants

      * 37.8.14. "Carbon.CoreGraphics" — CoreGraphics constants

      * 37.8.15. "Carbon.Ctl" — Control Manager

      * 37.8.16. "Carbon.Dialogs" — Dialog Manager constants

      * 37.8.17. "Carbon.Dlg" — Dialog Manager

      * 37.8.18. "Carbon.Drag" — Drag and Drop Manager

      * 37.8.19. "Carbon.Dragconst" — Drag and Drop Manager
        constants

      * 37.8.20. "Carbon.Events" — Event Manager constants

      * 37.8.21. "Carbon.Evt" — Event Manager

      * 37.8.22. "Carbon.File" — File Manager

      * 37.8.23. "Carbon.Files" — File Manager constants

      * 37.8.24. "Carbon.Fm" — Font Manager

      * 37.8.25. "Carbon.Folder" — Folder Manager

      * 37.8.26. "Carbon.Folders" — Folder Manager constants

      * 37.8.27. "Carbon.Fonts" — Font Manager constants

      * 37.8.28. "Carbon.Help" — Help Manager

      * 37.8.29. "Carbon.IBCarbon" — Carbon InterfaceBuilder

      * 37.8.30. "Carbon.IBCarbonRuntime" — Carbon InterfaceBuilder
        constants

      * 37.8.31. "Carbon.Icn" — Carbon Icon Manager

      * 37.8.32. "Carbon.Icons" — Carbon Icon Manager constants

      * 37.8.33. "Carbon.Launch" — Carbon Launch Services

      * 37.8.34. "Carbon.LaunchServices" — Carbon Launch Services
        constants

      * 37.8.35. "Carbon.List" — List Manager

      * 37.8.36. "Carbon.Lists" — List Manager constants

      * 37.8.37. "Carbon.MacHelp" — Help Manager constants

      * 37.8.38. "Carbon.MediaDescr" — Parsers and generators for
        Quicktime Media descriptors

      * 37.8.39. "Carbon.Menu" — Menu Manager

      * 37.8.40. "Carbon.Menus" — Menu Manager constants

      * 37.8.41. "Carbon.Mlte" — MultiLingual Text Editor

      * 37.8.42. "Carbon.OSA" — Carbon OSA Interface

      * 37.8.43. "Carbon.OSAconst" — Carbon OSA Interface constants

      * 37.8.44. "Carbon.QDOffscreen" — QuickDraw Offscreen
        constants

      * 37.8.45. "Carbon.Qd" — QuickDraw

      * 37.8.46. "Carbon.Qdoffs" — QuickDraw Offscreen

      * 37.8.47. "Carbon.Qt" — QuickTime

      * 37.8.48. "Carbon.QuickDraw" — QuickDraw constants

      * 37.8.49. "Carbon.QuickTime" — QuickTime constants

      * 37.8.50. "Carbon.Res" — Resource Manager and Handles

      * 37.8.51. "Carbon.Resources" — Resource Manager and Handles
        constants

      * 37.8.52. "Carbon.Scrap" — Scrap Manager

      * 37.8.53. "Carbon.Snd" — Sound Manager

      * 37.8.54. "Carbon.Sound" — Sound Manager constants

      * 37.8.55. "Carbon.TE" — TextEdit

      * 37.8.56. "Carbon.TextEdit" — TextEdit constants

      * 37.8.57. "Carbon.Win" — Window Manager

      * 37.8.58. "Carbon.Windows" — Window Manager constants

    * 37.9. "ColorPicker" — Color selection dialog

  * 38. MacPython OSA Modules

    * 38.1. "gensuitemodule" — Generate OSA stub packages

    * 38.2. "aetools" — OSA client support

    * 38.3. "aepack" — Conversion between Python variables and
      AppleEvent data containers

    * 38.4. "aetypes" — AppleEvent objects

    * 38.5. "MiniAEFrame" — Open Scripting Architecture server
      support

      * 38.5.1. AEServer Objects

  * 39. SGI IRIX Specific Services

    * 39.1. "al" — Audio functions on the SGI

      * 39.1.1. Configuration Objects

      * 39.1.2. Port Objects

    * 39.2. "AL" — Constants used with the "al" module

    * 39.3. "cd" — CD-ROM access on SGI systems

      * 39.3.1. Player Objects

      * 39.3.2. Parser Objects

    * 39.4. "fl" — FORMS library for graphical user interfaces

      * 39.4.1. Functions Defined in Module "fl"

      * 39.4.2. Form Objects

      * 39.4.3. FORMS Objects

    * 39.5. "FL" — Constants used with the "fl" module

    * 39.6. "flp" — Functions for loading stored FORMS designs

    * 39.7. "fm" — *Font Manager* interface

    * 39.8. "gl" — *Graphics Library* interface

    * 39.9. "DEVICE" — Constants used with the "gl" module

    * 39.10. "GL" — Constants used with the "gl" module

    * 39.11. "imgfile" — Support for SGI imglib files

    * 39.12. "jpeg" — Read and write JPEG files

  * 40. SunOS Specific Services

    * 40.1. "sunaudiodev" — Access to Sun audio hardware

      * 40.1.1. Audio Device Objects

    * 40.2. "SUNAUDIODEV" — Constants used with "sunaudiodev"

  * 41. Undocumented Modules

    * 41.1. Miscellaneous useful utilities

    * 41.2. Platform specific modules

    * 41.3. Multimedia

    * 41.4. Undocumented Mac OS modules

      * 41.4.1. "applesingle" — AppleSingle decoder

      * 41.4.2. "buildtools" — Helper module for BuildApplet and
        Friends

      * 41.4.3. "cfmfile" — Code Fragment Resource module

      * 41.4.4. "icopen" — Internet Config replacement for "open()"

      * 41.4.5. "macerrors" — Mac OS Errors

      * 41.4.6. "macresource" — Locate script resources

      * 41.4.7. "Nav" — NavServices calls

      * 41.4.8. "PixMapWrapper" — Wrapper for PixMap objects

      * 41.4.9. "videoreader" — Read QuickTime movies

      * 41.4.10. "W" — Widgets built on "FrameWork"

    * 41.5. Obsolete

    * 41.6. SGI-specific Extension modules

* Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter

  * 1. Extending Python with C or C++

    * 1.1. A Simple Example

    * 1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions

    * 1.3. Back to the Example

    * 1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function

    * 1.5. Compilation and Linkage

    * 1.6. Calling Python Functions from C

    * 1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions

    * 1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions

    * 1.9. Building Arbitrary Values

    * 1.10. Reference Counts

      * 1.10.1. Reference Counting in Python

      * 1.10.2. Ownership Rules

      * 1.10.3. Thin Ice

      * 1.10.4. NULL Pointers

    * 1.11. Writing Extensions in C++

    * 1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module

  * 2. Defining New Types

    * 2.1. The Basics

      * 2.1.1. Adding data and methods to the Basic example

      * 2.1.2. Providing finer control over data attributes

      * 2.1.3. Supporting cyclic garbage collection

      * 2.1.4. Subclassing other types

    * 2.2. Type Methods

      * 2.2.1. Finalization and De-allocation

      * 2.2.2. Object Presentation

      * 2.2.3. Attribute Management

        * 2.2.3.1. Generic Attribute Management

        * 2.2.3.2. Type-specific Attribute Management

      * 2.2.4. Object Comparison

      * 2.2.5. Abstract Protocol Support

      * 2.2.6. Weak Reference Support

      * 2.2.7. More Suggestions

  * 3. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils

    * 3.1. Distributing your extension modules

  * 4. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows

    * 4.1. A Cookbook Approach

    * 4.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows

    * 4.3. Using DLLs in Practice

  * 5. Embedding Python in Another Application

    * 5.1. Very High Level Embedding

    * 5.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview

    * 5.3. Pure Embedding

    * 5.4. Extending Embedded Python

    * 5.5. Embedding Python in C++

    * 5.6. Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems

* Python/C API Reference Manual

  * Introduction

    * Include Files

    * Objects, Types and Reference Counts

      * Reference Counts

        * Reference Count Details

      * Types

    * Exceptions

    * Embedding Python

    * Debugging Builds

  * The Very High Level Layer

  * Reference Counting

  * Exception Handling

    * Unicode Exception Objects

    * Recursion Control

    * Standard Exceptions

    * Standard Warning Categories

    * String Exceptions

  * Utilities

    * Operating System Utilities

    * System Functions

    * Process Control

    * Importing Modules

    * Data marshalling support

    * Parsing arguments and building values

    * String conversion and formatting

    * Reflection

    * Codec registry and support functions

      * Codec lookup API

      * Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers

  * Abstract Objects Layer

    * Object Protocol

    * Number Protocol

    * Sequence Protocol

    * Mapping Protocol

    * Iterator Protocol

    * Old Buffer Protocol

  * Concrete Objects Layer

    * Fundamental Objects

      * Type Objects

      * The "None" Object

    * Numeric Objects

      * Plain Integer Objects

      * Boolean Objects

      * Long Integer Objects

      * Floating Point Objects

      * Complex Number Objects

        * Complex Numbers as C Structures

        * Complex Numbers as Python Objects

    * Sequence Objects

      * Byte Array Objects

        * Type check macros

        * Direct API functions

        * Macros

      * String/Bytes Objects

      * Unicode Objects and Codecs

        * Unicode Objects

          * Unicode Type

          * Unicode Character Properties

          * Plain Py_UNICODE

          * wchar_t Support

        * Built-in Codecs

          * Generic Codecs

          * UTF-8 Codecs

          * UTF-32 Codecs

          * UTF-16 Codecs

          * UTF-7 Codecs

          * Unicode-Escape Codecs

          * Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs

          * Latin-1 Codecs

          * ASCII Codecs

          * Character Map Codecs

          * MBCS codecs for Windows

          * Methods & Slots

        * Methods and Slot Functions

      * Buffers and Memoryview Objects

        * The new-style Py_buffer struct

        * Buffer related functions

        * MemoryView objects

        * Old-style buffer objects

      * Tuple Objects

      * List Objects

    * Mapping Objects

      * Dictionary Objects

    * Other Objects

      * Class and Instance Objects

      * Function Objects

      * Method Objects

      * File Objects

      * Module Objects

      * Iterator Objects

      * Descriptor Objects

      * Slice Objects

      * Ellipsis Object

      * Weak Reference Objects

      * Capsules

      * CObjects

      * Cell Objects

      * Generator Objects

      * DateTime Objects

      * Set Objects

      * Code Objects

  * Initialization, Finalization, and Threads

    * Initializing and finalizing the interpreter

    * Process-wide parameters

    * Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

      * Releasing the GIL from extension code

      * Non-Python created threads

      * High-level API

      * Low-level API

    * Sub-interpreter support

      * Bugs and caveats

    * Asynchronous Notifications

    * Profiling and Tracing

    * Advanced Debugger Support

  * Memory Management

    * Overview

    * Memory Interface

    * Object allocators

    * The pymalloc allocator

    * Examples

  * Object Implementation Support

    * Allocating Objects on the Heap

    * Common Object Structures

    * Type Objects

    * Number Object Structures

    * Mapping Object Structures

    * Sequence Object Structures

    * Buffer Object Structures

    * Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

* Distributing Python Modules

  * Key terms

  * Open source licensing and collaboration

  * Installing the tools

  * Reading the guide

  * How do I…?

    * … choose a name for my project?

    * … create and distribute binary extensions?

* Installing Python Modules

  * Key terms

  * Basic usage

  * How do I …?

    * … install "pip" in versions of Python prior to Python 2.7.9?

    * … install packages just for the current user?

    * … install scientific Python packages?

    * … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?

  * Common installation issues

    * Installing into the system Python on Linux

    * Pip not installed

    * Installing binary extensions

* Python HOWTOs

  * Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3

    * The Short Explanation

    * Details

      * Drop support for Python 2.6 and older

      * Make sure you specify the proper version support in your
        "setup.py" file

      * Have good test coverage

      * Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3

      * Update your code

        * Division

        * Text versus binary data

        * Use feature detection instead of version detection

      * Prevent compatibility regressions

      * Check which dependencies block your transition

      * Update your "setup.py" file to denote Python 3 compatibility

      * Use continuous integration to stay compatible

      * Consider using optional static type checking

  * Porting Extension Modules to Python 3

    * Conditional compilation

    * Changes to Object APIs

      * str/unicode Unification

      * long/int Unification

    * Module initialization and state

    * CObject replaced with Capsule

    * Other options

  * Curses Programming with Python

    * What is curses?

      * The Python curses module

    * Starting and ending a curses application

    * Windows and Pads

    * Displaying Text

      * Attributes and Color

    * User Input

    * For More Information

  * Descriptor HowTo Guide

    * Abstract

    * Definition and Introduction

    * Descriptor Protocol

    * Invoking Descriptors

    * Descriptor Example

    * Properties

    * Functions and Methods

    * Static Methods and Class Methods

  * Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python

    * Language Constructs You Should Not Use

      * from module import *

        * Inside Function Definitions

        * At Module Level

        * When It Is Just Fine

      * Unadorned "exec", "execfile()" and friends

      * from module import name1, name2

      * except:

    * Exceptions

    * Using the Batteries

    * Using Backslash to Continue Statements

  * Functional Programming HOWTO

    * Introduction

      * Formal provability

      * Modularity

      * Ease of debugging and testing

      * Composability

    * Iterators

      * Data Types That Support Iterators

    * Generator expressions and list comprehensions

    * Generators

      * Passing values into a generator

    * Built-in functions

    * Small functions and the lambda expression

    * The itertools module

      * Creating new iterators

      * Calling functions on elements

      * Selecting elements

      * Grouping elements

    * The functools module

      * The operator module

    * Revision History and Acknowledgements

    * References

      * General

      * Python-specific

      * Python documentation

  * Logging HOWTO

    * Basic Logging Tutorial

      * When to use logging

      * A simple example

      * Logging to a file

      * Logging from multiple modules

      * Logging variable data

      * Changing the format of displayed messages

      * Displaying the date/time in messages

      * Next Steps

    * Advanced Logging Tutorial

      * Logging Flow

      * Loggers

      * Handlers

      * Formatters

      * Configuring Logging

      * What happens if no configuration is provided

      * Configuring Logging for a Library

    * Logging Levels

      * Custom Levels

    * Useful Handlers

    * Exceptions raised during logging

    * Using arbitrary objects as messages

    * Optimization

  * Logging Cookbook

    * Using logging in multiple modules

    * Logging from multiple threads

    * Multiple handlers and formatters

    * Logging to multiple destinations

    * Configuration server example

    * Sending and receiving logging events across a network

    * Adding contextual information to your logging output

      * Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

        * Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual
          information

      * Using Filters to impart contextual information

    * Logging to a single file from multiple processes

    * Using file rotation

    * An example dictionary-based configuration

    * Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler

    * Implementing structured logging

    * Customizing handlers with "dictConfig()"

    * Configuring filters with "dictConfig()"

    * Customized exception formatting

    * Speaking logging messages

    * Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally

    * Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration

    * Using a context manager for selective logging

  * Regular Expression HOWTO

    * Introduction

    * Simple Patterns

      * Matching Characters

      * Repeating Things

    * Using Regular Expressions

      * Compiling Regular Expressions

      * The Backslash Plague

      * Performing Matches

      * Module-Level Functions

      * Compilation Flags

    * More Pattern Power

      * More Metacharacters

      * Grouping

      * Non-capturing and Named Groups

      * Lookahead Assertions

    * Modifying Strings

      * Splitting Strings

      * Search and Replace

    * Common Problems

      * Use String Methods

      * match() versus search()

      * Greedy versus Non-Greedy

      * Using re.VERBOSE

    * Feedback

  * Socket Programming HOWTO

    * Sockets

      * History

    * Creating a Socket

      * IPC

    * Using a Socket

      * Binary Data

    * Disconnecting

      * When Sockets Die

    * Non-blocking Sockets

      * Performance

  * Sorting HOW TO

    * Sorting Basics

    * Key Functions

    * Operator Module Functions

    * Ascending and Descending

    * Sort Stability and Complex Sorts

    * The Old Way Using Decorate-Sort-Undecorate

    * The Old Way Using the *cmp* Parameter

    * Odd and Ends

  * Unicode HOWTO

    * Introduction to Unicode

      * History of Character Codes

      * Definitions

      * Encodings

      * References

    * Python 2.x’s Unicode Support

      * The Unicode Type

      * Unicode Literals in Python Source Code

      * Unicode Properties

      * References

    * Reading and Writing Unicode Data

      * Unicode filenames

      * Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

      * References

    * Revision History and Acknowledgements

  * HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using urllib2

    * Introduction

    * Fetching URLs

      * Data

      * Headers

    * Handling Exceptions

      * URLError

      * HTTPError

        * Error Codes

      * Wrapping it Up

        * Number 1

        * Number 2

    * info and geturl

    * Openers and Handlers

    * Basic Authentication

    * Proxies

    * Sockets and Layers

    * Footnotes

  * HOWTO Use Python in the web

    * The Low-Level View

      * Common Gateway Interface

        * Simple script for testing CGI

        * Setting up CGI on your own server

        * Common problems with CGI scripts

      * mod_python

      * FastCGI and SCGI

        * Setting up FastCGI

      * mod_wsgi

    * Step back: WSGI

      * WSGI Servers

      * Case study: MoinMoin

    * Model-View-Controller

    * Ingredients for Websites

      * Templates

      * Data persistence

    * Frameworks

      * Some notable frameworks

        * Django

        * TurboGears

        * Zope

        * Other notable frameworks

  * Argparse Tutorial

    * Concepts

    * The basics

    * Introducing Positional arguments

    * Introducing Optional arguments

      * Short options

    * Combining Positional and Optional arguments

    * Getting a little more advanced

      * Conflicting options

    * Conclusion

* Python Frequently Asked Questions

  * General Python FAQ

    * General Information

    * Python in the real world

    * Upgrading Python

  * Programming FAQ

    * General Questions

    * Core Language

    * Numbers and strings

    * Sequences (Tuples/Lists)

    * Dictionaries

    * Objects

    * Modules

  * Design and History FAQ

    * Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?

    * Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic
      operations?

    * Why are floating point calculations so inaccurate?

    * Why are Python strings immutable?

    * Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and
      calls?

    * Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?

    * Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g.
      list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?

    * Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple
      method?

    * How fast are exceptions?

    * Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?

    * Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of
      relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?

    * Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?

    * Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other
      language?

    * How does Python manage memory?

    * Why isn’t all memory freed when Python exits?

    * Why are there separate tuple and list data types?

    * How are lists implemented in CPython?

    * How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?

    * Why must dictionary keys be immutable?

    * Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?

    * How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?

    * Why is there no goto?

    * Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?

    * Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute
      assignments?

    * Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?

    * Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?

  * Library and Extension FAQ

    * General Library Questions

    * Common tasks

    * Threads

    * Input and Output

    * Network/Internet Programming

    * Databases

    * Mathematics and Numerics

  * Extending/Embedding FAQ

    * Can I create my own functions in C?

    * Can I create my own functions in C++?

    * Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?

    * How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?

    * How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?

    * How do I extract C values from a Python object?

    * How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary
      length?

    * How do I call an object’s method from C?

    * How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that
      prints to stdout/stderr)?

    * How do I access a module written in Python from C?

    * How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?

    * I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?

    * How do I debug an extension?

    * I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some
      files are missing. Why?

    * What does “SystemError: _PyImport_FixupExtension: module
      yourmodule not loaded” mean?

    * How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?

    * How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or
      __pure_virtual?

    * Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in
      C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?

    * When importing module X, why do I get “undefined symbol:
      PyUnicodeUCS2*”?

  * Python on Windows FAQ

    * How do I run a Python program under Windows?

    * How do I make Python scripts executable?

    * Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?

    * How do I make an executable from a Python script?

    * Is a "*.pyd" file the same as a DLL?

    * How can I embed Python into a Windows application?

    * How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python
      source?

    * How do I check for a keypress without blocking?

    * How do I emulate os.kill() in Windows?

    * How do I extract the downloaded documentation on Windows?

  * Graphic User Interface FAQ

    * What platform-independent GUI toolkits exist for Python?

    * What platform-specific GUI toolkits exist for Python?

    * Tkinter questions

  * “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ

    * What is Python?

    * Why is Python installed on my machine?

    * Can I delete Python?

* Glossary

* About these documents

  * Contributors to the Python Documentation

* Reporting Bugs

  * Documentation bugs

  * Using the Python issue tracker

  * Getting started contributing to Python yourself

* Copyright

* History and License

  * History of the software

  * Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python

    * PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.7.16

    * BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0

    * CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1

    * CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2

  * Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software

    * Mersenne Twister

    * Sockets

    * Floating point exception control

    * MD5 message digest algorithm

    * Asynchronous socket services

    * Cookie management

    * Execution tracing

    * UUencode and UUdecode functions

    * XML Remote Procedure Calls

    * test_epoll

    * Select kqueue

    * strtod and dtoa

    * OpenSSL

    * expat

    * libffi

    * zlib
