## Advanced Traits

We first covered traits in the “Traits: Defining Shared Behavior” section of Chapter 10, but as with lifetimes, we didn’t discuss the more advanced details. Now that you know more about Rust, we can get into the nitty-gritty.

### Specifying Placeholder Types in Trait Definitions with Associated Types

Associated types connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used in this type’s place for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a trait that uses some types without needing to know exactly what those types are until the trait is implemented.

We’ve described most of the advanced features in this chapter as being rarely needed. Associated types are somewhere in the middle: they’re used more rarely than features explained in the rest of the book but more commonly than many of the other features discussed in this chapter.

One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is iterating over. In “The `Iterator` Trait and the `next` Method” section of Chapter 13, we mentioned that the definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing 19-12.

    pub trait Iterator {
        type Item;

        fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>;
    }

Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated type `Item`

The type `Item` is a placeholder type, and the `next` method’s definition shows that it will return values of type `Option<Self::Item>`. Implementors of the `Iterator` trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` method will return an `Option` containing a value of that concrete type.

Associated types might seem like a similar concept to generics, in that the latter allow us to define a function without specifying what types it can handle. So why use associated types?

Let’s examine the difference between the two concepts with an example from Chapter 13 that implements the `Iterator` trait on the `Counter` struct. In Listing 13-21, we specified that the `Item` type was `u32`:

Filename: src/lib.rs

    struct Counter {
        count: u32,
    }

    impl Counter {
        fn new() -> Counter {
            Counter { count: 0 }
        }
    }

    impl Iterator for Counter {
        type Item = u32;

        fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
            // --snip--
            if self.count < 5 {
                self.count += 1;
                Some(self.count)
            } else {
                None
            }
        }
    }

This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the `Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13?

    pub trait Iterator<T> {
        fn next(&mut self) -> Option<T>;
    }

Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics

The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement `Iterator<String> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a generic parameter, it can be implemented for a type multiple times, changing the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the `next` method on `Counter`, we would have to provide type annotations to indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use.

With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the definition that uses associated types, we can only choose what the type of `Item` will be once, because there can only be one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere that we call `next` on `Counter`.

### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading

When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to specify a concrete type if the default type works. The syntax for specifying a default type for a generic type is `<PlaceholderType=ConcreteType>` when declaring the generic type.

A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with operator overloading. Operator overloading is customizing the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) in particular situations.

Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` struct:

Filename: src/main.rs

    use std::ops::Add;

    #[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)]
    struct Point {
        x: i32,
        y: i32,
    }

    impl Add for Point {
        type Output = Point;

        fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point {
            Point {
                x: self.x + other.x,
                y: self.y + other.y,
            }
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        assert_eq!(
            Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 },
            Point { x: 3, y: 3 }
        );
    }

Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for `Point` instances

The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an associated type named `Output` that determines the type returned from the `add` method.

The default generic type in this code is within the `Add` trait. Here is its definition:

    #![allow(unused)]
    fn main() {
    trait Add<Rhs=Self> {
        type Output;

        fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output;
    }
    }

This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called default type parameters. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right hand side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing `Add` on.

When we implemented `Add` for `Point`, we used the default for `Rhs` because we wanted to add two `Point` instances. Let’s look at an example of implementing the `Add` trait where we want to customize the `Rhs` type rather than using the default.

We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the newtype pattern, which we describe in more detail in the “Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types” section. We want to add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of `Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15.

Filename: src/lib.rs

    use std::ops::Add;

    struct Millimeters(u32);
    struct Meters(u32);

    impl Add<Meters> for Millimeters {
        type Output = Millimeters;

        fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters {
            Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000))
        }
    }

Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add `Millimeters` to `Meters`

To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add<Meters>` to set the value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`.

You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways:

- To extend a type without breaking existing code
- To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need

The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to customize beyond that. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait definition means you don’t have to specify the extra parameter most of the time. In other words, a bit of implementation boilerplate isn’t needed, making it easier to use the trait.

The first purpose is similar to the second but in reverse: if you want to add a type parameter to an existing trait, you can give it a default to allow extension of the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing implementation code.

### Fully Qualified Syntax for Disambiguation: Calling Methods with the Same Name

Nothing in Rust prevents a trait from having a method with the same name as another trait’s method, nor does Rust prevent you from implementing both traits on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type with the same name as methods from traits.

When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, `Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented on it. Each `fly` method does something different.

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait Pilot {
        fn fly(&self);
    }

    trait Wizard {
        fn fly(&self);
    }

    struct Human;

    impl Pilot for Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("This is your captain speaking.");
        }
    }

    impl Wizard for Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("Up!");
        }
    }

    impl Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("*waving arms furiously*");
        }
    }

    fn main() {}

Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` method and are implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` directly

When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17.

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait Pilot {
        fn fly(&self);
    }

    trait Wizard {
        fn fly(&self);
    }

    struct Human;

    impl Pilot for Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("This is your captain speaking.");
        }
    }

    impl Wizard for Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("Up!");
        }
    }

    impl Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("*waving arms furiously*");
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        let person = Human;
        person.fly();
    }

Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human`

Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly.

To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax.

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait Pilot {
        fn fly(&self);
    }

    trait Wizard {
        fn fly(&self);
    }

    struct Human;

    impl Pilot for Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("This is your captain speaking.");
        }
    }

    impl Wizard for Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("Up!");
        }
    }

    impl Human {
        fn fly(&self) {
            println!("*waving arms furiously*");
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        let person = Human;
        Pilot::fly(&person);
        Wizard::fly(&person);
        person.fly();
    }

Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call

Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write `Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to disambiguate.

Running this code prints the following:

    $ cargo run
       Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
        Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.46s
         Running `target/debug/traits-example`
    This is your captain speaking.
    Up!
    *waving arms furiously*

Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two types that both implement one trait, Rust could figure out which implementation of a trait to use based on the type of `self`.

However, associated functions that are part of traits don’t have a `self` parameter. When two types in the same scope implement that trait, Rust can’t figure out which type you mean unless you use fully qualified syntax. For example, the `Animal` trait in Listing 19-19 has the associated function `baby_name`, the implementation of `Animal` for the struct `Dog`, and the associated function `baby_name` defined on `Dog` directly.

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait Animal {
        fn baby_name() -> String;
    }

    struct Dog;

    impl Dog {
        fn baby_name() -> String {
            String::from("Spot")
        }
    }

    impl Animal for Dog {
        fn baby_name() -> String {
            String::from("puppy")
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name());
    }

Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a type with an associated function of the same name that also implements the trait

This code is for an animal shelter that wants to name all puppies Spot, which is implemented in the `baby_name` associated function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait `Animal`, which describes characteristics that all animals have. Baby dogs are called puppies, and that is expressed in the implementation of the `Animal` trait on `Dog` in the `baby_name` function associated with the `Animal` trait.

In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following:

    $ cargo run
       Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
        Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.54s
         Running `target/debug/traits-example`
    A baby dog is called a Spot

This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints `A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error.

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait Animal {
        fn baby_name() -> String;
    }

    struct Dog;

    impl Dog {
        fn baby_name() -> String {
            String::from("Spot")
        }
    }

    impl Animal for Dog {
        fn baby_name() -> String {
            String::from("puppy")
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name());
    }

Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use

Because `Animal::baby_name` is an associated function rather than a method, and thus doesn’t have a `self` parameter, Rust can’t figure out which implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error:

    $ cargo run
       Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
    error[E0283]: type annotations needed
      --> src/main.rs:20:43
       |
    2  |     fn baby_name() -> String;
       |     ------------------------- required by `Animal::baby_name`
    ...
    20 |     println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name());
       |                                           ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer type
       |
       = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal`

    error: aborting due to previous error

    For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0283`.
    error: could not compile `traits-example`

    To learn more, run the command again with --verbose.

To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of `Animal` for `Dog`, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to use fully qualified syntax.

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait Animal {
        fn baby_name() -> String;
    }

    struct Dog;

    impl Dog {
        fn baby_name() -> String {
            String::from("Spot")
        }
    }

    impl Animal for Dog {
        fn baby_name() -> String {
            String::from("puppy")
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        println!("A baby dog is called a {}", <Dog as Animal>::baby_name());
    }

Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog`

We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an `Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want:

    $ cargo run
       Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
        Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s
         Running `target/debug/traits-example`
    A baby dog is called a puppy

In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows:

    <Type as Trait>::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...);

For associated functions, there would not be a `receiver`: there would only be the list of other arguments. You could use fully qualified syntax everywhere that you call functions or methods. However, you’re allowed to omit any part of this syntax that Rust can figure out from other information in the program. You only need to use this more verbose syntax in cases where there are multiple implementations that use the same name and Rust needs help to identify which implementation you want to call.

### Using Supertraits to Require One Trait’s Functionality Within Another Trait

Sometimes, you might need one trait to use another trait’s functionality. In this case, you need to rely on the dependent trait also being implemented. The trait you rely on is a supertrait of the trait you’re implementing.

For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an `outline_print` method that will print a value framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it should print the following:

    **********
    *        *
    * (1, 3) *
    *        *
    **********

In the implementation of `outline_print`, we want to use the `Display` trait’s functionality. Therefore, we need to specify that the `OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait.

Filename: src/main.rs

    use std::fmt;

    trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
        fn outline_print(&self) {
            let output = self.to_string();
            let len = output.len();
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("* {} *", output);
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
        }
    }

    fn main() {}

Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the functionality from `Display`

Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type that implements `Display`. If we tried to use `to_string` without adding a colon and specifying the `Display` trait after the trait name, we’d get an error saying that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in the current scope.

Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct:

Filename: src/main.rs

    use std::fmt;

    trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
        fn outline_print(&self) {
            let output = self.to_string();
            let len = output.len();
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("* {} *", output);
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
        }
    }

    struct Point {
        x: i32,
        y: i32,
    }

    impl OutlinePrint for Point {}

    fn main() {
        let p = Point { x: 1, y: 3 };
        p.outline_print();
    }

We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented:

    $ cargo run
       Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example)
    error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display`
      --> src/main.rs:20:6
       |
    3  | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
       |                     ------------ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint`
    ...
    20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {}
       |      ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter
       |
       = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point`
       = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead

    error: aborting due to previous error

    For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`.
    error: could not compile `traits-example`

    To learn more, run the command again with --verbose.

To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that `OutlinePrint` requires, like so:

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display {
        fn outline_print(&self) {
            let output = self.to_string();
            let len = output.len();
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("* {} *", output);
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
        }
    }

    struct Point {
        x: i32,
        y: i32,
    }

    impl OutlinePrint for Point {}

    use std::fmt;

    impl fmt::Display for Point {
        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
            write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y)
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        let p = Point { x: 1, y: 3 };
        p.outline_print();
    }

Then implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display it within an outline of asterisks.

### Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types

In Chapter 10 in the “Implementing a Trait on a Type” section, we mentioned the orphan rule that states we’re allowed to implement a trait on a type as long as either the trait or the type are local to our crate. It’s possible to get around this restriction using the newtype pattern, which involves creating a new type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in the “Using Tuple Structs without Named Fields to Create Different Types” section of Chapter 5.) The tuple struct will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type we want to implement a trait for. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can implement the trait on the wrapper. Newtype is a term that originates from the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty for using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time.

As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec<T>`, which the orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the `Vec<T>` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct that holds an instance of `Vec<T>`; then we can implement `Display` on `Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 19-23.

Filename: src/main.rs

    use std::fmt;

    struct Wrapper(Vec<String>);

    impl fmt::Display for Wrapper {
        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
            write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", "))
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        let w = Wrapper(vec![String::from("hello"), String::from("world")]);
        println!("w = {}", w);
    }

Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec<String>` to implement `Display`

The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec<T>`, because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec<T>` is the item at index 0 in the tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`.

The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement all the methods of `Vec<T>` directly on `Wrapper` such that the methods delegate to `self.0`, which would allow us to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a `Vec<T>`. If we wanted the new type to have every method the inner type has, implementing the `Deref` trait (discussed in Chapter 15 in the “Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the `Deref` Trait” section) on the `Wrapper` to return the inner type would be a solution. If we don’t want the `Wrapper` type to have all the methods of the inner type—for example, to restrict the `Wrapper` type’s behavior—we would have to implement just the methods we do want manually.

Now you know how the newtype pattern is used in relation to traits; it’s also a useful pattern even when traits are not involved. Let’s switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system.